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// 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


NEW  AND   ENLARGED 
EDITION. 


A  COMPILATION  OF 


PLANS  FOR  GENERAL  FARM  BARNS,      CATTLE  BARNS, 

DAIRY  BARNS,        HORSE  BARNS,        SHEEP  FOLDS, 

SWINE  PENS,        POULTRY  HOUSES,         SILOS, 

FEEDING    RACKS,  FARM    GATES, 

SHEDS,  PORTABLE   FENCES, 

CONCRETE    CONSTRUCTION, 

HANDY   DEVICES,   ETC. 


®         ®         ® 


CHICAGO: 
THE    BREEDER'S   GAZETTE. 
1916 


COPYRIGHT,  19U, 
SANDERS  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


PUBLISHERS'    NOTE. 


THIS  is  not  a  book  of  proposed  plans  for  farm  buildings,  but  for  the 
most  part  is  a  presentation  of  actual  construction  by  practical  men. 
It  is  in  the  main  a  compilation  of  the  best  plans  contributed  to  THE 
BREEDER'S  GAZETTE  by  the  farmers  and  stockmen  of  the  United  States 
in  recent  years.  Many  different  types  are  illustrated.  Different  farms,  dif- 
ferent latitudes  and  different  methods  of  management  demand  an  infinite 
variation  in  the  style,  dimensions  and  detail  of  American  farm  buildings. 

In  barn  building  as  in  the  planning  of  the  farm  home,  nearly  every 
individual  has  his  own  peculiar  ideas  and  tastes.  It  is  rarely  that  one  is 
entirely  satisfied  with  what  a  neighbor  has  done  in  such  matters.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  clear  that  many  general  propositions  and  many  matters  of 
detail  possessing  real  value  to  a  prospective  builder  may  be  gleaned  from 
a  study  of  what  successful  farmers  in  different  parts  of  the  country  have 
already  carried  out. 

In  the  belief  that  many  helpful  hints  will  be  found  in  these  pages  and 
to  fill  a  persistent  demand  for  information  upon  the  subject  treated  the  pub- 
lishers present  this  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  "Farm  Buildings"  with 
full  confidence  that  it  will  meet  with  general  appreciation. 


355125 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/farmbuildingscomOOfarmrich 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page 

General  Farm  Barns  13-54 

Location  and  General  Arrangement 1 

The  Modern  Barn 18 

Wing's  Joist  Frame 21 

Barn  Roofs    22 

Minnesota  Farm  Barn 23 

Lovejoy's  Farm  Barn 25 

New  Type  of  Circular  Barn 27 

An  Experiment  Station  Barn 28 

Stock  and  Hay  Barn 30 

Indiana  Farm  Barn 32 

Whitehall  Farm  Barn 32 

Wisconsin  Farm  Barn 35 

Kentucky  Farm   Barn 36 

Ohio  Farm  Barn 37 

Bank  Barn  37 

Basement  Barn    39 

Kentucky   Stock  Barn 40 

Plan  for  a  Small  Barn 41 

Good  Type  of  Farm  Barn 42 

Barn  for  Small  Farm 42 

University  Cattle  Barn 42 

Michigan  Barn  44 

Western  Illinois  Barn 46 

Small  Stock  Barn 47 

Barn  for  Horses  and  Sheep 48 

Barn  for  50  Cows 49 

Iowa  Round  Barn 51 

Barn  for  Cattle  and  Horses 52 

Hay  Barn  with  Sheds 52 

Dakota  Plank  Frame  Barn 52 

Stock  Barn  with  Hay  in  Middle 53 

Stable  for  Horses,  Hogs  and  Cows 53 

Cattle  Barns 55-91 

Kansas  Cattle  Barn 56 

Morgan   Cow   Barn 56 

Iowa  Cattle  Barn 57 

Hawkeye   Cattle   Barn 58 

Another  Kansas  Cattle  Barn 59 

Indiana   Cattle   Barn 59 

Hoosier  Cattle  Barn 63 

Octagonal  Cattle  Barn 63 

Cornbelt  Barn 64 

Modern  Type  of  Cattle  Barn 65 

Barn  for  Breeding  Cattle 65 

Illinois  Cattle  Barn 66 

Open  Center  Cattle  Barn 67 

Missouri  Barn  Plan 68 

Cattle-Feeding  Barn   69 

Barn  for  Feeding  Catt'.e  Loose 70 

Iowa  Steer  Barn 70 

Barn  for  Beef  Cattle 71 

Wisconsin   Cattle  Barn 78 

Cattle  Barn  in  Indiana 78 

Barn  for  125  Cattle 79 

Indiana  Stock  Barn 81 


North  Dakota  College  Barn 82 

Michigan  College  Barn 84 

Barn  for  Pure-Bred  Cattle 84 

Cattle  Barn  with  Open  Yards 86 

Barn  for  Feeding  Cattle 87 

Breeding   Cattle   Barn 88 

English  Bull  Barn 89 

Cattle  Sale  Pavilion 89 

Cattle  Sale  Barn 90 

Small   Cattle   Barn 91 

Horse  Barns  and  Stables 91-123 

Underlying  Principles    91 

Stabling  at  Oaklawn  Farm 92 

Barn  for  Light  Horses 95 

Montana  Horse  Barn 96 

Coach  and  Stallion  Barn 96 

Modern  Stallion  Barn 97 

Horse  Barn  Without  Cross  Ties 98 

Barn  for  14  Hoi-ses 99 

Nebraska  Horse  Barn 100 

Three-Story  Farm  and  Horse  Barn 102 

Iowa  Stallion  Barn 102 

Barn  for  40  Horses 103 

Bank  Stable  for  Horses 104 

McMillan's  Horse  Barn 104 

Barn  for  Speed  Horses 105 

Illinois   Stallion   Barn 106 

Convenient  Colt  Stables 108 

Mule    Barn    109 

Stable  for  Three   Horses 110 

Shed  for  Mares  with  Foals 112 

Large  Iowa  Horse  Barn 113 

Barn  for  18  Horses 114 

Barn  for  Horses  in  Texas 114 

Barn  for  20  Horses  in  Indiana 114 

Barn  for  Six  Horses  in  Oklahoma. 115 

Small  Stable  for  Two  Horses 115 

Barn  for  Horses  and  Sheep 115 

Plan  for  Horse  and  Hay  Barn 116 

Connecticut  Horse  Stable 116 

Handy  Small  Barn 117 

Plan  for  Small  Stable 117 

Barn  for  Stallions  in  Missouri 118 

Stable  for  25  Horses 118 

Plan  for  Livery  Stable 120 

Northern  Illinois  Horse  Barn 120 

Indiana  Round  Horse  Barn 121 

Dairy  Barns  124-147 

General   Principles    124 

Sanitary  Dairy  Barn 125 

Southern  Illinois  Dairy  Barn 125 

Round  Dairy  Barn 126 

Barn  for  20  Milch  Cows 129 

Hygienic  Dairy  Barn 131 

Nebraska   Dairy  Barn 132 

Pennsylvania  Dairy  Barn 132 

Wisconsin   Dairy   Barn 134 


10 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Dairy  Barn  for  20  Cows 135 

Dairy  Barn  for  Idaho 135 

Tennessee    Dairy   Barn 136 

Brookside  Dairy  Barn 140 

Hiilcrest  Dairy  Barn 140 

Barn  for  Young  Dairy  Stock 146 

Round  Dairy  Barn 146 

Nebraska  Dairy  Barn 146 

Swine  Barns  and  Houses 148-179 

General   Principles    148 

Modern  Hoghouses    149 

Hoghouse  and  Feeding  Floor 156 

Lovejoy    Farrowing    House 157 

House   for   Pigs 159 

Morgan  Hog  Barn 159 

Nebraska  Hoghouse    160 

Experiment  Station  Hog  Barn 161 

Illinois  Hoghouse    164 

House  for  20  Sows 165 

Hoghouse  for  Sows  and  Pigs 167 

Farrowing  Pen  for  Early  Litters 167 

Iowa    Movable    Hoghouse 168 

Maryland  Hoghouse 168 

Hoghouse  and  Storage  Barn 169 

Indiana  Hoghouse  170 

Corsa's  Hoghouse    170 

Hoghouse  for  Brood  Sows 173 

Type  of  Hog  Shelter 174 

Another  Individual  Hoghouse 175 

Hoghouse  for  $400 175 

House  for  Two  Brood  Sows 177 

Individual  Hoghouses   177 

Good  Type  of  Hoghouse 178 

Single  Hog  Barn 178 

Sheep  Barns  and  Sheds 179-197 

General  Principles    179 

Wisconsin  Sheep  Barn 180 

Nebraska  Sheep  Barn 180 

College  Sheep  Barn 181 

Baby  Mutton   Factory 184 

Utah   Sheep   Shed 185 

Barn  with  Glass-Covered  Shed 186 

Interior  of  a  Sheep  Barn 188 

Small   Sheep   Barn 189 

Barn  for  Feeding  Sheep 190 

Lamb  Feeding  Shed 190 

Lambing  Barn  for  the  South 191 

Good  Lambing  Shed 192 

Thorndale   Sheep   Barn 193 

Ohio  Sheep  Feeding  Barn 195 

Sheep  Barn  for  150  Ewes 195 

Barn  for  Lamb  Raising .196 

Barn  for  Cows  and  Sheep 197 

Poultry  Houses .  198-209 

General  Principles    198 

Warm  and  Dry  Poultry  Houses 201 

Convenient  Poultry  House 202 

Summer   Hen   House 202 

Small  Inexpensive  Hen  House 203 

Illinois  Poultry  House 204 

House  with  Secret  Nests 204 

Simple  Type  of  Hen  House 205 

House  for  150  Hens 205 

Practical  Hen  House 206 

Farm  Poultry  House 206 


House  Serving  Two  Yards 206 

Montana  Poultry  Building 207 

Minnesota  Poultry  House 208 

Colony  House  for  a  Dozen  Hens 209 

Concrete   Construction    210-236 

Cement — Concrete   210 

Kinds  of  Cement 212 

Use  of  Crushed  Stone 213 

Building    Forms 213 

Building  Foundations    214 

Finishing  the  Wall 214 

Keeping  Water  Out  of  Basement 214 

Hollow  or  Solid  Walls 214 

Construction  of  Hollow  Walls 215 

Putting  in  Doors  and  Window  Frames .215 

Blocks  for  Walls 215 

Chimney   Caps    215 

Foundation  Stones    216 

Porch   Columns 216 

Corncrib  Foundations    216 

Fence   Posts    217 

Floors    219 

Cellar  Floors    219 

Barn   Floors    219 

Feeding  and  Barnyard  Floors 220 

Mistakes  in  Flooring 220 

Stable  Floors    2:^0 

Horse   Stalls    220 

Hoghouses 221 

Watering   Troughs    221 

Building  Large  Combining  Tanks 222 

Small  Circular  Tanks 222 

Rubble  Work  for  Walls  and  Posts 223 

Silos    224 

Roofing   224 

Hearthstones     225 

Chimneys   225 

Outside   Plastering    225 

Floors  in  Hoghouses 225 

Hoghouse  Floor   226 

Feeding  Floor  for  Hogs 226 

Watering   Trough    226 

Smokehouse     227 

Water  Tank    228 

Blocks   for   Houses 229 

Watering  Places    230 

Building  a  Tank 231 

Circular   Tank    232 

Farm  Tank    233 

Building  Walls    235 

Miscellaneous     236-354 

Silos — 

Location   236 

Filling     236 

Illinois  Type  237 

Wood   and   Cement 239 

Wing  Cement    240 

Concrete  Block 241 

Combination  Cement   244 

Cribs,   Granaries   and   Workshops — 

Square  Crib  246 

Building  a  2,000-bushel  Corncrib 247 

Rat-proof  Corncrib    249 

Combined  Corncrib  and  Granary 249 

Plan  for  a  Corncrib 249 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


11 


Round  and   Rat-proof  Corncrib 250 

Two-Story  Double  Corncrib 252 

Tool  House  and  Workshop 253 

Convenient  Tool  Shed 253 

Storing  Shredded  Fodder 254 

Machine  Shed  for  Small  Farm 255 

Plan  for  a  Root  Cellar 255 

Frame  for  Hay  Barn 256 

Joist  Frame  Hay  Barracks 257 

Feed  Racks  and  Troughs — 

Practical  Feed  Rack  for  Sheep 257 

Self-feeding  Manger  and  Stall 257 

Colorado  Sheep  Feeding  Rack 258 

Hay  Rack  and  Feeder  for  Sheep 258 

Troughs  and  Sheds  for  500  Lambs 259 

Sheep  Racks   260 

Self-feeder    for   Cattle 260 

Self-feeders  for  Open  Lots 260 

Sheep  Rack  at  Iowa  Experiment  Station 261 

Corn  Fodder  Rack  for  Cattle 261 

Sheep  Feeding  Rack 262 

Hay  Self-feeder   263 

Combined  Hay  and  Grain  Rack 263 

Self-feeder  in  Horse's  Feed-box 263 

Cattle  Yard  and  Self-feeder  for  Hay 264 

Sheep  Feeding  Rack  and  Trough 264 

Building  a  Hay  Shed 265 

Good  Idea  in  Feed  Racks 266 

Farm  Fences — 

Fence  Posts  267 

Building  Concrete  Corner  Posts 268 

Type  of  Cement  Anchor  Posts 269 

Setting  Fence  Posts 269 

Stone  Anchor  Walls  for  Fence 271 

Convenient  Portable  Fence 273 

Portable  Hog  and  Sheep  Fencing 274 

Hurdles  for  Sheep 274 

Bracing  a  Wire  Fence 275 

Good   Cheap  Fence 276 

Preserving  Posts   277 

Consumption  of  Wooden  Fence  Posts 277 

Farm  Gates — 

General  Considerations   277 

Various  Types   277-285 

Gate  of  Wire 285 

Braces  for  Gates 285 

Entrance  Gate    287 

Posts   of  Cobblestones 288 

Latch  for  Gates 288 

Farm  Gate  Latch 289 

Building  Portable  Fence 289 

Portable  Picket  Fence 290 

Dipping  Tanks — 

Essential   Points    291 

Cattle   Tank    293 

Vat  for   Sheep 295 

Cement  Tank   297 

Dipping  Sheep  on  the  Farm 297 

General — 

Wagon  Racks  Stanchion 298 

Device  for  Three-horse  Hitch 299 

Four  Horses  with  Two  Reins 300 

Evener  for  Five  Horses 300 

Five  Horses  Abreast  on  a  Plow 301 

Three  and  Four-horse  Hitch 301 


Multiple  Hitches    302 

Five  Horses  on  a  Gang  Plow 304 

Three-horse  Doubletree   305 

Hitching  Four  Horses  Abreast 305 

Virginia  Hog-pen   Front 305 

Breeding  Boxes  for  Swine 305-308 

Breaking  a  Halter  Puller 308 

Making  a  Rope  Halter 309 

Breaking  Cows  of  Sucking  Habit 309-311 

Jack  Pit  for  Range  Mares 311 

Anchoring  Barn  to  Ground 311 

Rack  for  Dehorning  and  Ringing 311 

Dehorning  Chute  312 

Device  for  Holding  Hogs 313 

Ear-Marking  Hogs    313 

Bull    Stock    316 

Poultry  Drinking  Fountain 316 

Fence-breaking  Bulls   317 

Hog  Shipping  Crate 317 

Single  Pole  Hay  Stacker 317 

Boom  Stacker 318 

One-pole  Hay  Stacker 319 

Returning  Hay  Fork  to  Load 320 

Seed  Corn  Crate 320 

Protecting   Stacks   from   Weather 320 

Curing  Peavine  Hay 321 

Device  for  Covering  Stacks 321 

Portable  Hog  Loader 322 

Portable  Hog  Chute 322 

Icehouses     322-326 

Corral  for  7,000  Cattle -. .  .326 

Horse-breaking  Corral 327 

Cold  Storage  House 327 

Ventilation  of  Stables 329 

Stable  Ventilator » 330 

Self-regulating  Ventilator 330 

Water  Supply  on  the  Farm 330 

Earth  Water  Tank 3S1 

Insulating  Water   Pipes 332 

Cold  Storage  333 

Packing  for  Cold  Storage  Closet 333 

Drainage  System   333 

Whitewash  Formula 334 

Box-stall  Construction    334 

Scott's    Cow   Stall 335 

Van  Norman  Cow  Stall 336 

Stalls  and  Stall  Floors 338 

Power  Transmission  338 

Light  and  Heat  by  Electricity 340 

Speeds  for  Line  Shafts 340 

Pulleys,  Sizes  and  Speeds  of 341 

Power,  Attaching  to  Distant  Pumps 342 

Windmill,  Gearing  a  Pump  to 342 

Dairy  Room  on  the  Farm 344 

Drill  for  Boring  Wells 345 

Tank,  Heating  Water  in 346 

Horns,  Device  for  Training 346 

Compressed  Air  Water  Service 346 

Boxstalls  on  Fair  Grounds 347 

Window,   Pivoted   Barn 347 

Machine  Shed  for  Small  Farm 348 

Carrier  for  Hay  Barn 348 

Scale  Lot  and  Dipping  Tank 348 

Power  for  Farm  Purposes 349 

Iowa  Barn  for  Breeding  Cattle 352 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


LOCATION  AND  GENERAL  ARRANQEMENT. 


The  planning  and  construction  of  farm  build- 
ings should  be  done  with  regard  to  the  surround- 
ing outside  features  as  much  as  to  the  interior 
arrangement  and  convenience  of  the  rooms.  It 
is  a  common  error  to  see  little  forethought  taken 
in  the  placing  of  the  buildings,  in  their  relation 
to  one  another  or  to  the  surrounding  conditions ; 
the  total  disregard  of  a  fine  outlook  that  might 
have  been  had  from  the  windows  that  are  most 
frequented ;  many  errors  in  the  proper  way  to 
approach  the  house  from  the  highway,  and  many 
times  the  utter  absence  of  any  attempt  at  orna- 
mentation in  tlie  way  of  tree  planting — nothing 
save  bare  sides  and  sharp  angles  of  buildings 
open  to  all  winds,  storms  and  sun  heat,  or  the 
opposite  extreme,  burying  the  house  in  a  dense 
shade  of  loneliness. 

Now  this  should  not  be  so.  When  the  advan- 
tages and  increased  value  of  the  property  as  a 
whole  are  considered  it  is  at  once  apparent.  Any 
one  can  distinguish  between  a  nice  farm,  a  place 
where  it  would  be  a  pleasure  to  live,  and  on  the 
other  hand  one  that  is  bare  and  uninviting.  The 
cost  is  a  matter  of  forethought  on  the  part  of 
the  individual  at  the  beginning  in  the  planning 
of  the  work,  and  the  actual  material  to  ])e  used 
in  beautifying  the  grounds  almost  always  can 
be  had  for  the  gathering.  One  may  easily  find 
the  time  to  do  the  work  when  once  he  has  tasted 
of  the  pleasures  there  are  in  surroundings  that 
are  made  attractive  with  trees  and  plants  ar- 
ranged to  make  a  landscape  that  is  ever  improv- 
ing and  changing  in  scence. 

When  a  beginning  is  made  toward  embellish- 
ment of  the  home  surroundings  then  there  is  a 
new  birth  given,  the  feeling  of  attachment  that 
reflects  back  into  pleasant  and  longing  recollec- 
tions of  the  liappy  lives  passed  there,  and  the 
far-reacliing  influence  of  cheerful  home  sur- 
roundings on  the  character  and  future  life  of 
the  growing  generation  toward  the  good  and 
high  of  ideal  life  is  above  any  estimation,  besides 
being  a  source  of  interest  and  everlasting  joy 
and  pleasure  alike  to  the  owner  and  to  all  who 
enter  here. 

Farming  is  not  all  corn.  There  are  many  fine 
farms  tliat  are  only  such  from  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  quiet  natural  parklike  effect  resting 


over  the  home  place,  and  if  favored  with  a  fertile 
soil  and  kind  climate  how  much  more  blest  we 
could  be  if  we  would  bring  about  us  more  of  the 
natural  beauties  so  abundant  everywhere.  This 
need  not  detract  an  instant  from  the  economical 
operation  of  the  farm,  but  if  practically  planned 
should  add  many  fold  thereto. 

We  can  assume  that  the  residence  and  other 
buildings  are  already  placed,  or  that  building  is 
to  be  done  at  some  future  time.  With  respect 
to  the  all-important  question  of  choosing  the 
house  site,  the  custom  in  the  city  seems  to  be  the 
law  without  recourse  in  the  country,  in  that  the 
house  must  stand  facing  square,  with  the  best 
rooms  toward  the  public  road.  If  a  better  ex- 
posure or  a  fine  scene  lies  in  another  direction, 
reverse  the  order  regardless  of  the  highway. 
Again,  houses  are  dropped  in  a  hollow,  carried 
to  the  top  of  a  bare  hill,  or  placed  too  near  dusty 
roads  or  stables,  making  things  more  disagree- 
able tlian  convenience  would  compensate.  The 
house  should  not  be  put  on  a  poor  or  waste  piece 
of  ground  just  to  gain  a  little  extra  tillable 
land. 

Personal  preferences  should  of  course  be  taken 
into  consideration,  but  as  a  rule  many  desirable 
locations  are  ignored.  Among  the  specific  direc- 
tions to  apply  in  selecting  the  home  site  are  good 
sanitary  conditions.  These  demand  air  and 
quick  drainage  of  water.  All  this  is  secured  on  a 
dryish  soil,  slightly  elevated  if  possible  and  fair- 
ly open  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air.  Any 
protection  against  prevailing  north  and  west 
winds  in  the  winter  season,  such  as  hills,  trees 
or  any  other  natural  objects  in  the  track  of 
regular  storms,  should  be  made  use  of,  but  cool 
and  refreshing  winds  should  not  be  hindered  in 
their  direction  during  the  heated  season. 

The  distance  from  tlie  highway  is  hardly  a 
matter  of  importance.  If  the  best  place  is  400' 
from  the  road  it  should  be  chosen  over  another 
less  desirable,  though  200'  nearer.  Besides  this 
an  entrance  approach  of  reasonable  length,  if 
properly  laid  out  among  a  grove  of  trees,  will 
add  much  to  the  dignity  and  bearing  of  the 
place.  The  relation  of  the  house  and  barn 
should  be  such  that  they  do  not  appear  as  a  part 
of  each  other,  and  in  driving  to  the  house  one  is 
not  led  first  through  yards  and  past  gaping  barn 


13 


14 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


doors.  The  barn  should  occupy  a  position  so 
that  the  prevailing  winds  will  carry  the  stable 
odors  in  a  direction  away  from  the  house,  and 
not  toward  it,  as  is  often  the  case.  The  exact 
position  and  arrangement  of  the  out-buildings 
and  enclosures  will  be  according  to  their  use,  and 


order  there  is  a  quiet  dignity  and  homelike  rest- 
fulness  that  is  in  pleasing  harmony  with  every 
rural  landscape.  The  rooms  should  be  few  and 
large.  The  veranda  is  right  if  one  step  up  from 
the  ground  and  at  least  10'  wide,  and  a  porte- 
cochere  or  carriage  porch  should  be  a  part  of 


FIG.    1.       PLAN   FOR   LAYING   OUT   A   160-ACRE   FARM   AND   FARM    HOME. 


to  be  convenient  should  be  few  and  compact,  and 
not  scattered  over  a  whole  area.  Pens,  sheds 
and  stacks  should  not  be  conspicuous  in  a  gen- 
eral front  view. 

In    country   houses   broad   simple    design    is 
much  to  be  preferred.    All  about  a  house  of  this 


every  country  house,  as  it  surely  is  a  comfort 
when  rainy  or  windy  to  drive  up  to  the  door  un- 
der a  roof.  Especially  is  the  excessive  use  of  all 
"gingerbread"  mill  work  in  gable  ornaments, 
railings,  brackets  and  the  like  to  be  discouraged, 
as  such  detail  soon  falls  into  decay  and  is  a  con- 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


15 


stant  item  of  repairing,  and  the  greater  part  of 
it  is  vulgar  and  meaningless.  Likewise  the  use  of 
many  discordant  colors  in  outside  painting  is  not 
in  keeping  with  surroundings ;  a  modest  neutral 
shade  that  blends  with  the  tields  and  trees  is  the 
correct  one.  Red  is  a  good  and  cheap  color  for 
barns,  and  possibly  for  houses,  also,  but  it  should 
be  shaded  down  and  the  glare  and  ash  taken  off. 
Features  of  the  natural  landscape  should  re- 
ceive great  consideration,  as  it  is  these  that  give 
character  to  the  farmstead.    A  grove  of  noble 


istic  of  the  particular  country,  a  broad  far  prairie 
scene  that  holds  hands  with  the  horizon  beyond ; 
hills  or  woodlands  bounding  the  view  with  their 
picturesque  sky-line,  a  river  or  winding  stream 
with  wooded  shores  and  spanning  bridge  or  a 
lake  of  broad  expanse  and  quiet  surface — all 
these  are  everlasting  scenes  of  delight  and  in- 
spiration. 

Now,  as  a  practical  demonstration  of  how  a 
farm  can  be  developed  in  a  complete  and  intelli- 
gent manner,  reference  to  the  accompanying  ex- 


—    To  Totv/v 


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FIG.    2.       SUGGESTED   ARRANGEMENT    OF    A   FARM    HOUSE,    BUILDINGS    AND    GROUNDS    FOR   A    NORTH    FRONT. 


trees  on  a  slight  eminence  would  at  once  suggest 
the  future  home  site.  In  the  choice  of  views  here 
is  a  suggestion  as  to  the  points  of  interest :  first 
would  come  the  immediate  surroundings  made 
beautiful  with  lawn,  trees  and  shrubs,  and  far- 
ther out  the  adjacent  fields  of  growing  crops  or 
pasturing  animals  are  constanth'  in  mind.  The 
neighboring  farm  houses,  the  travel  on  the  high- 
way, or  a  speeding  railroad  train  are  all  of  every- 
day attraction.   The  landscape  that  is  character- 


ample  shown  by  the  plan  will  serve  to  clinch  the 
essential  points  mentioned.  The  plan  represents 
a  general  scheme  for  the  layout  of  a  160-acre 
prairie  farm.  There  are  no  trees  on  the  tract  of 
any  importance ;  the  surface  is  slightly  rolling 
with  no  prominent  elevations  anywhere — in  all 
a  typical  grain  and  stock-farm  where  corn,  oats, 
some  wheat,  hay  and  pasturage  are  almost  all 
sold  in  the  finished  products  of  beef  and  pork. 
It  is  believed  that  this  scheme  comes  very  near 


16 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


an  economical  use  of  all  the  land,  combined  with 
a  beautification  of  the  home  snrroundings,  a 
parklike  entrance  and  approach  drive,  a  com- 
manding position  for  the  house  and  the  farm 
buildings  centrally  located  and  accessible  from 
all  parts  of  the  premises.  ( See  Figs.  1,  2  and  3. ) 
The  house  is  placed  in  a  ten-acre  piece,  which 
may  be  properly  called  the  home  plot.  Here  are 
collected  all  the  buildings  (except  the  barn  and 


south.  All  the  main  rooms  have  a  south  and 
east  exposure.  It  is  approached  from  the  public 
highway  on  a  curve  which  is  in  the  direction  of 
the  most  traffic  (the  city  in  this  case).  This  is 
a  much  better  way  than  entering  at  right  angles 
and  adds  greatly  to  the  appearance  of  the  en- 
trance and  does  not  allow  a  direct  view  up  the 
drive  from  the  road.  The  drive  slants  over  until 
within  about  20'  of  the  fence;  it  then  parallels 


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SUGGESTED   ARRANGEMENT    OF   A   FARM    HOUSE,    BUILDINGS    A.ND    GROUNDS    FOR    A    SOUTH    FRONT. 


feeding  lot),  orchard,  vegetable  and  fruit  gar- 
den, shaded  lawn,  flowers  and  all  that  goes  into 
daily  life.  This  plan  leaves  no  waste  ground ; 
everything  is  compactly  arranged,  and  yet  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the  extension  of  any 
particular  part  without  interfering  with  another. 
The  residence  is  about  700'  from  the  high- 
way and  stands  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
home  plot,  the  ground  sloping  off  gently  to  the 


the  fence  in  a  straight  line  to  the  barn.  A  short 
distance  from  the  house  a  branch  road  leads  over 
on  a  gradual  curve  to  the  carriage  porch,  passing 
underneath  it ;  the  curve  then  continues  and  joins 
the  main  road  to  the  barn.  By  placing  the  house 
about  70'  or  so  from  the  main  drive  the  clatter 
and  noise  of  teaming  are  to  a  large  degree  shut 
away  from  contact  with  the  rooms  and  a  nice 
lawn  that  comes  up  to  the  house  on  that  side. 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


17 


This  entrance  road  is  ten  feet  wide,  the  branch 
nine  feet,  graded  with  gravel  from  a  nearby  pit 
and  smoothly  surfaced  off  with  a  crown  just  suffi- 
cient to  turn  the  water.  The  barn  is  250'  from  the 
house  and  is  set  40'  into  the  ten-acre  pasture  to 
the  west,  with  a  silo  on  the  north  side  convenient 
alike  to  the  barn  and  feeding  lot.  Another  build- 
ing is  put  up  80'  directly  east  for  general  storage 
purposes  of  machinery,  wagons,  supplies  and  re- 
pair shop.  The  space  between  the  barn  and  the 
storage  house  should  be  drained  and  bedded  with 
gravel  to  serve  as  a  general  movement  yard  and 
entrance  for  both  buildings — a  place  to  set  up  the 
shredding  outfit,  grinding,  unloading  and  the 
like.  Water  is  piped  into  this  yard  and  to  the 
house  from  the  tank  and  well  just  back  of  the 
storage  house.  A  poultry  shed  is  at. the  north  of 
this  building. 

A  good  big  orchard  contains  about  125  trees, 
including  apples,  pears,  plums  and  cherries, 
which  will  give  plenty  of  fruit  for  home  use  and 
much  to  sell.  If  a  fence  is  run  along  the  lower  side 
of  the  orchard  then  the  pigs  can  be  turned  in  any 
time  to  consume  the  fallen  fruit,  although  the 
trees  will  be  cared  for  the  same  as  a  crop  of  corn. 
One  acre  is  given  to  small  fruits.  The  grapes  are 
put  next  the  orchard  because  they  are  more  per- 
manent than  the  raspberries  and  blackberries, 
which  can  be  moved  back  and  forth  into  the 
nursery  ground  when  they  get  old  and  worn  out 
in  one  place ;  currants  and  gooseberries  are  also 
planted.  The  strip  for  nursery  purposes  does 
good  service  in  growing  trees  and  bushes  to  set 
out  in  the  future.  A  row  of  hot-beds  and  frames 
is  useful  in  many  ways ;  it  is  protected  along  the 
north  with  evergreen  trees.  The  vegetable  gar- 
den of  one  and  one-quarter  acres  will  give  abund- 
ance of  good  things  and  all  that  is  left  over  the 
pigs  will  take  as  dessert.  The  strawberry  patch 
is  moved  about  the  garden  every  year  or  two. 
Asparagus  and  rhubarb  are  along  the  fence. 

A  lawn  space  bounds  the  house  on  all  sides, 
varying  in  width  from  150'  to  200'.  It  is  not 
necessary,  however,  to  keep  it  closely  mown.  In 
the  rear  the  grass  covers  the  clothes-  drying  space ; 
further  back  are  the  beehives  and  a  place  for  the 
woodpile.  The  grounds  about  the  house  are 
planted  with  trees  for  shade  and  beauty;  a  place 
for  children  to  play  and  climb,  and  a  source  of 
recreation  and  ease  for  the  older  members  of  the 
family.  As  to  the  kinds  used  for  this  purpose, 
in  making  the  groundwork  or  foundation  of  the 
scene  use  such  native  trees  as  are  found  growing 
in  the  immediate  locality;  elms,  maples,  lindens 
and  ash  are  in  greater  abundance.  All  these 
trees  are  reasonably  quick  in  growth,  bear  trans- 
planting well  and  will  therefore  prove  a  success 


from  the  start.  Hawthornes,  wild  cherries, 
plums,  and  crabapples,  juneberry,  dog^vood  and 
redbud  are  planted  in  the  places  to  thicken  up 
and  mass  with  the  other  trees ;  occasionally  they 
appear  in  detached  groups  or  specimens  by  them- 
selves. They  will  lend  variety  and  charm  to  the 
surroundings  in  the  springtime  with  their  white, 
pink  and  red  tiowers,  and  in  the  autumn  many  of 
them  close  the  growing  season  with  a  contrast  of 
scarlet  fruits  and  golden-hued  foliage. 

xVlong  the  entrance  road  -the  work  is  done  in 
a  like  manner.  Evergreen  trees — pines  and 
spruce — are  planted  in  clumps ;  at  the  left-hand 
side  of  the  entrance  is  one  group,  farther  up 
on  the  other  side  is  another.  On  the  west  and 
northwest  sides  of  the  house  are  thick  groups  to 
lessen  the  prominence  of  the  barn,  to  check  cold 
winds  and  vary  the  effect  with  the  deciduous 
trees.  Trees  are  placed  along  those  sides  of  the 
barn  seen  from  the  highway ;  they  will  soften 
the  ])lank  l)arn  side  and  give  a  proper  setting  to 
the  building  as  a  whole.  The  gable  and  tower 
appearing  among  the  tree  tops  will  mark  a  dis- 
tinctly rural  scene.  To  protect  the  buildings  and 
feeding  lots  somewhat  against  the  direct  force 
of  cold  northwest  winds  groups  of  Norway  spruce 
are  planted  in  alternate  groups  with  deciduous 
trees,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  north  of  the  barn  and 
act  as  a  wind  check. 

The  entrance  gate  should  be  set  in  at  least 
30'  from  the  fence  line,  thus  leaving  an  open 
space  of  60'  to  70'  on  each  side  of  the  drive,  as 
shown  in  the  plan.  This  space  is  planted  with 
trees,  and  if  an  elm  is  planted  on  each  side  of 
the  gate  a  beautiful  arcl\ing  effect  will  be  hud 
over  the  formal  entrance  to  the  place. 

A  tree  to  appear  in  all  its  natural  beamy 
should  spread  its  branches  out  and  down  to  the 
ground  on  all  sides.  Never  trim  all  the  branches 
off  and  expose  a  bare  stem.  no4'  hack  off  the  ends 
of  branches  and  make  a  stubby,  broom-shaped 
thing.  If  a  good  set  of  roots  is  dug  with  the  tree 
no  pruning  is  ref(uired.  Pruning  of  ornamental 
trees  is  properly  a  thinning  out  in  the  center  of 
minor  twigs  and  branches.  Let  the  tree  develop 
into  its  own  natural  form.  Cutting  can  never 
accomplish  this. 

Shrubs  should  be  massed  in  a  border  along  the 
entrance  drive  next  to  the  fence,  to  add  variety 
with  their  foliage  and  flowers  at  different  times. 
An  irregular  massing  of  shrubbery  forms  a  boun- 
dary belt  along  the  east  and  south  sides  of  the 
house.  The  lawn  extends  out  on  those  sides  to 
this  border.  Along  the  edges  next  the  grass  is 
the  place  for  hardy  flowers,  native  perennials 
and  any  other  favorites  tliat  are  desired :  here 
they  will  be  in  charming  contrast  with  the  lawn 


18 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


and  bushes.  The  kinds  of  shrubs  used  are  wild 
native  species  found  growing  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, such  as  dogwoods  (the  red-branched  and 
others),  sumach,  elderberry,  wild  rose,  Indian 
currant,  snowballs,  spiraea,  lilacs,  mock-orange 
and  honeysuckle.  Japan  quince  and  forsythia 
are  nice  in  places  where  they  are  seen  from  the 
windows,  because  of  their  early  blossoms.  So  are 
those  early-flowering  trees,  such  as  juneberry, 
wild  goose  plum,  Judas  tree  and  dogwood.  Such 
early  spring  flower  scenes  of  color  are  delightful 
to  children  or  invalids  who  are  confined  to  the 
house  until  weather  becomes  milder.  Vines  ram- 
ble all  over  the  porch  columns  and  up  the  fire- 
place chimney  on  the  west  side  of  the  living  room. 

The  views  from  the  house  are  indicated  by  the 
converging  lines.  {Fig.  1.)  Three  different 
scenes  are  open  from  the  living  room :  We  have 
the  veranda  along  the  south  and  east  sides  of 
this  room.  To  the  west  the  sight  is  across  open 
fields  to  the  lowering  sunset.  Different  openings 
through  the  trees  give  glimpses  of  the  life  on  the 
highway.  Out  of  the  dining  room  the  picture 
is  one  of  sunlight  and  shadow  over  the  open 
lawn,  under  the  trees  to  the  color  of  flowers.  The 
kitchen  and  rear  porch  are  shaded  in  the  sum- 
mer ;  a  walk  connects  them  with  the  drive ; 
storage  room  is  ample ;  the  office  is  handy  to  the 
drive,  and  an  outlook  to  the  west ;  the  carriage 
porch  and  entrance  hall  face  west. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  say  that  the  farm  home 
stands  as  the  central  feature,  with  the  barns  in 
a  subordinate  position.  They  are  then  brought 
into  harmonious  relation  with  each  other  through 
the  artistic  planting  of  native  trees.  Orchard 
and  gardens  are  grouped  as  nearby  accessories 
and  the  grounds  about  the  house  are  further  en- 
riched with  shrubs  and  flowers.  The  drive  and 
walks  allow  convenient  and  easy  access  to  all 
places  and  lead  in  a  natural  manner  to  the  high- 
way. Along  the  highway  and  in  groups  about 
the  boundaries  and  cross  fences  trees  are  planted 
according  to  introduction  and  outline. 

THE  MODERN  BARN. 

Have  you  any  definite  idea  of  what  sort  of  a 
barn  you  want  ?  Have  you  carefully  considered 
first  your  means,  then  your  needs,  then  the  needs 
of  years  to  come?  Is  it  your  idea  to  build  a 
small,  cheap  barn  that  will  hold  a  few  tons  of 
hay,  the  grain,  a  few  cows,  the  working  horses,  a 
colt  or  two,  the  farm  machinery,  the  chickens 
and  ducks  ?  If  that  is  your  idea  think  whether  it 
is  economy  to  shelter  farming  tools  on  the  barn- 
floor,  which  means  that  they  are  endlessly  in  the 
way  and  that  they  have  a  shed  costing  ten  times 


what  one  would  cost  designed  especially  for  such 
a  purpose.  No  farmer  can  afford  to  build  a  barn 
with  such  a  small  storage  capacity  for  forage  that 
he  will  be  compelled  to  fill  it  in  summer  and  then 
re-fill  it  again  and  again  during  the  winter  and 
spring,  drawing  hay  from  the  stacks,  damaged  in 
quality  and  at  double  the  expense  of  putting  it 
directly  where  it  is  to  be  used. 


.<^^^ 


FIG.     4.       WING'S     JOIST    FRAME    FOR    BARNS. 

Is  it  not  cheaper  to  make  shingles  shelter  a 
depth  of  20'  or  25'  of  hay  than  a  depth  of  5' 
to  15'?  Consider  whether  it  is  real  economy  to 
combine  into  one  barn  all  the  shelter  and  stor- 
age room  needed  on  the  farm.   There  is  fire  to  be 

■  considered  and  convenience  in  handling  stock. 

I  Do  you  wish  the  colts  or  cows  to  run  in  the  yard 
with  the  pregnant  ewes  ?  Do  you  wish  to  mix 
breeding  sows  and  small  lambs  ? 


^; 


3 


i 


imYiiwSmmni  Trroffenrs 


■ ZZZ5  I 2) 

FIG.   5.     wing's   joist  frame  for  barns. 

The  barn  must  fit  the  farm  and  the  needs  of 
the  farmer.  It  is  folly  to  insist  that  any  one 
type  of  building  is  of  universal  suitability.  There 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


19 


is  this  thought  to  consider  when  building  a  barn : 
building  is  one  of  the  great  events  that  come 
far  apart.  After  a  new  barn  is  built  it  is  not 
likely  that  one  can  afford  to  add  to  it  or  build 
another  for  many  years.  Build,  then,  of  suffi- 
cient size  and  capacity  to  allow  for  a  reasonable 
growth  and  expansion  of  not  merely  the  farm 
crops  but  the  farm  animals.  Especially  provide 
ample  room  for  the  storage  of  forage.  Sheds 
may  be  cheaply  constructed  to  surround  the  barn 
and  these  sheds  will  shelter  the  stock,  and  may 
be  added  at  any  time,  but  the  storage  room  of 
the  mow  is  a  fixed  quantity  when  the  rafters  are 
put  on. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  barns  must  al- 
ways vary  in  shape,  size  and  arrangement,  it  is 
true  that  they  will  have  certain  things  in  com- 
mon if  they  are  modern  and  up  to  date. 

Beginning  at  the  foundation  the  modern  barn 
has  no  sills  under  it.  The  basement  posts  rest 
directly  upon  stones,  which  are  bedded  well  in 
the  ground  and  should  reach  below  the  frost 
line.  Sills  near  the  ground  are  not  merely  un- 
necessary but  a  nuisance  from  every  standpoint. 
They  decay,  harbor  rats  and  obstruct.  The  mod- 
ern barn  has  an  earthern  floor,  preferably  hard 
clay,  or  cement  where  necessary.  The  latter  is 
cheaper  than  the  wooden  floor  and  has  several 
points  of  advantage.  It  conserves  warmth,  no 
cold  drafts  come  under  it,  does  not  shelter  rats, 
manures  do  not  leach  through  it  and  it  does  not 
decay.  Yet  where  sheep  are  to  be  sheltered  or 
calves  or  cattle  run  loose  no  other  floor  is  needed 
than  the  natural  earth  well  bedded.  Even  horses 
prefer  to  stand  on  the  ground  and  many  of  the 
most  successful  horsemen  insist  that  their  horses 
shall  have  earth  floor  in  their  stalls. 

The  modern  barn  has  a  basement  or  lower 
story  beneath  its  entire  area  used  for  sheltering 
farm  animals.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  it  is 
in  the  line  of  economy.  Moreover,  it  is  a  great 
convenience  to  be  able  to  drive  through  to  clean 
out  manure  or  for  other  purposes.  There  is  also 
a  free  circulation  of  air  through  the  basement 
when  the  windows  are  opened  on  opposite  sides, 
there  being  no  wall  or  mow  of  hay  to  oppose  the 
air  currents.  Modern  hay-lifting  machinery 
makes  it  as  easy  to  lift  the  hay  above  the  base- 
ment as  to  drop  it  on  the  ground  level. 

In  designating  this  lower  story  a  basement  it  is 
not  meant  that  it  should  be  under  ground. 
Where  the  ground  is  inclined  and  level  positions 
are  not  easy  to  be  had,  the  old-fashioned  bank 
barn  may  be  considered,  yet  in  adopting  this 
type  it  should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that 
stone  walls  are  apt  to  be  productive  of  disease 
germs,  especially  of  tuberculosis,  which  thrive 


in  a  dark  and  poorly  ventilated  barn  basement. 
However,  the  advantages  of  a  bank  barn  may  be 
had  without  sacrificing  light  or  ventilation.  Let 
the  earth  be  heaped  against  the  wall  not  more 
than  4'  or  5'  and  above  this  provide  numerous 
windows,  all  arranged  to  open  wide.  The  ven- 
tilation of  the  basement  must  be  carefully 
thought  out  according  to  climatic  conditions  and 
the  kind  of  stock  to  be  sheltered.  This  is  a 
point  against  sheltering  all  sorts  of  animals  to- 
gether. Ventilation  that  is  desirable  for  the 
sheep  barn  may  be  very  undesirable  for  dairy 
cows. 

The  lighting  of  the  basement  is  an  important 
matter.  Sunshine  is  a  great  purifier  and  de- 
stroyer of  microbes  and  germs.  It  adds  to  the 
comfort  of  calves,  lambs,  and  pigs  as  it  comes 
through  the  generous  south  windows  during  cold 
winter  days.  Glass  is  fortunately  almost  as 
cheap  as  siding.  It  will  pay  for  itself  many 
times  over  if  used  to  let  the  sun  in  the  barn 
basement.  This  also  is  true  of  the  poultry -house. 
It  is  a  commentary  on  the  ignorance  of  a  man 
that  so  often  the  farm  animals  will  go  almost 
anywhere  rather  than  into  the  quarters  he  has 
provided  for  them.  If  the  barn  is  built  right 
and  managed  right  the  animals  will  need  to  be 
shut  away  from  it  rather  than  driven  into  it. 

An  important  consideration  is  that  the  barn 
shall  store  an  abundance  of  provender  that  may 
be  easily  and  cheaply  put  in  it.  To  this  end  the 
building  must  have  depth  of  hay  mow  without 
cross-ties  through  the  middle  to  obstruct  the  free 
working  of  the  hay-carrier  and  fork  or  the  use 
of  slings.  For  the  ordinary  barn  of  about  40' 
length  the  height  from  the  level  of  the  mow 
floor  to  eaves  should  be  20',  and  the  best  width 
is  between  30'  and  50'.  The  chief  consideration 
is  carrying  the  hay  back  from  the  center  to  the 
sides  when  filling  the  mow.  The  track  on  which 
the  carrier  runs  should  be  directly  in  the  center 
of  the  roof,  and  the  hay  dropping  below  it  will 
not  easily  be  carried  back  more  than  25',  and  on 
the  whole  a  width  of  40'  or  45'  is  preferable. 

The  roof  should  be  what  is  termed  a  half- 
pitch;  that  is,  the  rafters  inclined  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees,  or  the  curb  roof  of  two  angles. 
The  roofing  material  should  be  slate,  good  shin- 
gles or  galvanized  iron.  Painted  iron  roofing  is 
not  very  satisfactory.  Tin  is  used  considerably 
on  flat  roofs  and  makes  a  good  job  if  kept  in  re- 
pair and  well  painted. 

Almost  all  manufacturers  make  carriers  that 
hold  the  load  and  run  it  in  at  any  desired  height 
just  to  clear  the  floor  or  the  level  of  the  hay  in 
the  mow  or  up  to  the  peak  of  the  roof,  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  occasion.    The  use  of  such  a 


20 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


carrier  effects  economy  in  time  and  power  and 
results  in  making  better  hay,  for  there  is  less 
mow-burning  when  hay  is  not  dropped  from  too 
great  a  height. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  most  barns 
are  too  small,  too  low,  too  inconvenient  in  ar- 
rangement and  too  uncomfortable  for  the  ani- 
mals, while  some  are  too  large  (this  is  rare)  and 
too  ornate  and  expensive. 

The  day  of  the  barn  sill  has  gone.  Instead 
the  posts  are  set  directly  on  stone  or  piers  of 
concrete  made  of  cement.  Between  the  post  and 
the  pier  it  is  well  to  lay  a  block  2"  thick,  which 
will  effectually  prevent  the  absorption  of  mois- 
ture by  the  bottom  of  the  post.  Should  this  block 
decay  it  is  readily  replaced. 

Posts  should  not  come  clear  down  to  the  floor 
level;  the  stones  or  piers  should  rise  12"  to  16" 
to  throw  the  post  above  the  moisture  or  manure 
which  may  accumulate  in  cattle  or  sheep  barns. 
Box-stalls  in  horse  stables  may  also  be  permitted 
to  accumulate  manure,  being  kept  well  littered, 
and  the  result  is  better  dryness  and  no  heating 
of  the  well-tramped  manure,  besides  the  total 
saving  of  all  liquids. 

Concrete  blocks  to  set  posts  on  are  cheap  and 
satisfactory.  They  are  made  right  in  place.  Ex- 
cavate to  solid  ground — usually  18"  will  suffice — 
a  hole  24"  square.  Make  wooden  moulds  shaped 
like  truncated  pyramids  8"  square  at  the  top, 
and  18"  at  bottom  or  larger,  depending  on  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  building.  These  moulds 
may  hinge  together  and  fasten  with  bolts  that 
may  be  loosened  so  that  they  may  be  easily  re- 
moved from  the  blocks.  It  should  be  leveled  so 
that  the  top  comes  to  the  right  place,  then  filled 
with  concrete  in  which  may  well  be  imbedded 
a  great  many  cobble  stones.  A  %"  bolt  pro- 
jected upwards  4"  from  center  of  block  and  post 
set  down  on  it  is  useful,  if  the  building  is  not 
very  heavy,  to  keep  wagons  from  butting  the 
posts  of  the  stones.  After  a  few  hours  of  setting 
the  mould  may  be  taken  carefully  away  and  an- 
other block  made.  The  moulds  should  be  filled 
full  enough  to  make  them  of  the  same  level.  A 
surveyor's  level  at  hand  when  setting  the  blocks 
is  most  convenient  and  saves  much  time  and 
trouble. 

Hard  earth  is  a  very  satisfactory  floor  for 
sheep  barns  and  cattle  barns  where  animals  run 
loose.  Earth  is  desirable  for  box-stalls  where 
they  are  kept  littered,  as  they  should  be.  Cement 
should  be  used  for  dairy  cow  stalls. 

Vertical  siding  is  best.  Matched  siding  is  sel- 
dom dry  enough  so  that  the  tongues  stay  in  the 
grooves.  It  is  better  to  use  plain  unmatched 
barn  boards  12"  wide,  battened  with  3"  strips 


after  seasoning.  In  any  event  put  siding  on  ver- 
tically ;  it  is  stronger,  more  durable  and  cheaper 
to  erect  in  this  way.  If  you  wish  to  whitewash 
the  building  either  inside  or  out  use  unplaned 
lumber  and  the  whitewash  will  adhere  better. 

Only  the  best  shingles  should  be  used.  Cedar 
is  said  to  be  durable,  but  the  cedar  shingles  com- 
monly sold  are  very  thin.  Steep  roofs  last  double 
the  time  of  flat  roofs  if  of  wood.  Soaking 
wooden  shingles  for  a  moment  in  boiling  linseed 
oil  adds  to  their  durability.  A  trifle  of  red  color 
added  to  the  oil  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  roof. 
The  color  should  not  be  of  sufficient  quantity 
to  more  than  stain.  Dip  the  shingles  in  large 
handfuls  to  the  tips,  lay  them  on  a  piece  of  sheet 
iron  and  let  them  drain  into  the  kettle.  This 
is  said  to  make  inferior  shingles  last  40  years. 
They  will  not  crack  badly  nor  curl  when  so 
treated.  Painted  shingles  are  not  recommended. 
Shingle  nails  as  now  made  of  steel  wire  will  rust 
off  in  10  years  or  less.  They  may  be  had  gal- 
vanized and  should  be  so  for  either  shingles  or 
slate. 

There  is  no  roofing  more  durable  or  more  satis- 
factory than  slate.  It  is  heavier  than  shingles 
and  requires  strong  rafters.  For  barns  single- 
lap  slate  is  coming  much  into  favor ;  it  is  lighter 
and  much  cheaper  than  double-lap  and,  save  that 
storms  sometimes  blow  in  a  very  little,  it  is  as 
good. 

Perhaps  no  form  of  roofing  has  caused  more 
disappointment  and  vexation  than  metal,  which 
rusts  rapidly  and  recjuires  fre({uent  paintings. 
Galvanized  steel  seems  durable  and  when  well 
galvanized  it  has  endured  for  many  years  un- 
injured.   IMetal  roofs  are  hot  in  summer. 

Rubber,  paper,  felt  and  asphalt  and  other  kinds 
of  roofing  will  serve  if  given  proper  attention. 
Barn  roofs  are  usually  neglected. 

For  eave  troughs  modern  tin  rusts  through  in 
three  seasons.  Paint  will  not  prevent  rust  in  a 
tin  eave  trough.  Galvanized  iron  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. It  is  well  to  make  eave  troughs  and 
spoutings  of  generous  size. 

"Let  all  hinges  be  larger  than  seems  neces- 
sary" is  the  suggestion  of  an  experienced  barn 
builder.  Hinges  are  cheap ;  get  them  strong. 
jNIake  sliding  doors  to  run  on  flexible  hangers 
which  permit  the  doors  to  be  raised  up  at  the 
bottom  without  twisting  the  hinges  or  track. 

Stalls  for  dairy  cows  should  be  3I/2'  wide; 
for  beef  cattle  4'  wide.  Three  single  horse  stalls 
will  go  in  a  16'  tent.  Four  horses  may  easily 
occupy  the  same  space  in  two  double  stalls  and 
teams  accustomed  to  standing  together  will  do  so 
without  injury.  Box-stalls  should  be  of  fairly 
generous  size.     For  cows    7'x8'    is    permissible 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


21 


as  a  minimum;  for  horses  8'xlO'.  Do  not 
make  many  box-stalls  so  small.  A  good  horse 
stall  is  10'x]2'.  Horses  will  eat  their  hay  from 
the  ground  in  a  box-stall  without  waste  if  not 
given  too  much,  and  many  horsemen  think  it  is 
the  best  way.  Put  windows  in  a  stable  as  high  as 
you  can,  and  put  in  plenty  of  them.  "Slake  doors 
4'  wide  where  you  can.  Make  as  many  of  them 
to  slide  as  you  can.  A  height  of  7'  in  a  cow 
stable  is  permissible  if  a  good  system  of  ventila- 
tion is  provided.  ]\Iake  the  horse  stable  8'  or 
higher.  Make  the  sheep  barn  as  well  ventilated 
as  possible.  A  width  of  12'  between  centers  of 
posts  works  M'ell  in  a  sheep  barn.  Do  not  try  to 
put  under  one  roof  all  classes  of  stock,  tools,  hens, 
and  hired  men.  Do  not  plan  immensely  wide 
barns.  They  seem  economical  but  greater  com- 
fort and  better  results  come  from  narrower  barns 
built  partly  to  surround  a  paved  court,  sheltered 
thus  from  wind  and  storm.  - 

WING'S  JOIST  FRAME. 

Joseph  E.  "Wing  thus  describes  the  joist  frame : 
I  have  for  many  years  studied  the  question  of 
barn  frames  and  designed  a  good  many  types. 
A  barn  frame  should  have  great  strength  to  up- 
hold weight,  resist  wind  pressure  and  withstand 
the  pressure  of  rafters  when  weighted  with  snow. 


FRAME  ROOF   THJS  FRAME  ROOF  THIS 

WAV  WHEN  BUILDING  IS  WAY  WHEN  36'  WIDE 

MORE  THAN  36- WIDE  AND  UNDER 


ONE  INNER  BENT 
40-  WIDE 
18-  POSTS 
8-  CLEAR  BASMT 
27'  MOW 


CD 


2 -xS'    6  PARTS 


C2  a  C3 

FIG.     6.       WING'S     JOIST    FRAME    FOR    BARXS. 


My  progress  has  been  a  steady  evolution  towards 
the  simple  frame  of  two  stories  or  more,  with 
curb  roof  and  purlin  posts,  in  which  every  stick 
has  a  purpose  and  is  so  placed  that  it  exerts  its 
utmost  power  in  the  line  of  its  greatest  strength. 
The  frame  is  an  adaptation,  and  I  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  adopt  other  men's  ideas.     The  roof  was 


invented  many  years  ago  and  used  in  New  York 
and  New  England.  It  has  stood  the  test  of  40 
years  or  more  in  the  heavy  snows  of  that  region 
and  I  have  never  seen  nor  heard  of  one  crushing. 
Built  in  the  form  of  an  arch  it  supports  itself. 
The  side  walls  need  not  be  extremely  high ;  from 
18'  to  20'  with  this  roof  gives  great  storage  ca- 
pacity. They  are  prevented  from  spreading  by 
the  long  brace  which  will  withstand  ten  times  the 
pull  that  the  thrust  of  rafters  may  ever  put  over 
it.  For  very  wide  barns  purlin  posts  should  be 
used,  but  up  to  50'  this  roof  is  safe  when  rightly 
framed  with  the  supplemental  truss  beneath  the 
angle,  and  when  so  framed  there  is  yet  a  saving 
in  material  and  convenience  over  the  old-style 
roof  supported  by  purlin  posts.  (See  Figs.  4,  5 
and  6.) 

There  is  no  solid  timber  at  all  in  the  frame 
and  few  sticks  need  be  of  unusual  length.  There 
should  be  full-length  posts ;  apart  from  these  ties, 
joist-bearers,  plates,  nail  girts  and  all  may  be 
spliced  wherever  convenience  indicates  and  hy 
always  splicing  a  piece  2'  long  behind  the  splice, 
and  spiking  well,  the  whole  is  made  as  though 
of  one  piece.  But  one  difficulty  may  confront  the 
builder:  the  building  of  hay  chutes.  It  is  not 
desirable  to  have  permanent  hay  chutes,  for  with 
tlie  mow  unobstructed  by  cross-ties  ha\'  is  taken 
in  by  sling  carriers  that  grip  the  rope  and  hold 
the  draft  at  any  height,  thus  swinging  it  in  as 
soon  as  it  clears  the  level  of  the  hay  in  the  mow 
or  the  mow  floor,  and  hay  chutes  are  very  often 
needed  in  the  middle  of  the  barn.  To  make  this 
come  right  have  the  hay  chutes  made  in  sections 
about  6'  in  height,  building  them  3i/o'  or  4' 
S(iuare,  and  in  this  manner  build  two  panels  of 
solid  boarding,  like  doors,  say  3i^'x6',  and  hinge 
together  at  the  edges  so  that  they  collapse  and  lie 
tiat.  Provide  hooks  on  one  edge  and  staples  on 
the  other.  Take  two  of  these  pairs  and  opening 
them  hook  together  and  set  over  the  opening  in 
the  floor  and  we  have  a  section  of  6'  of  the 
hay  chute.  Fill  the  mow  that  high  or  a  little 
higher  and  set  up  another  section,  and  so  on  till 
the  mow  is  filled.  When  taking  out  hay  these  sec- 
tions are  folded  up  and  hung  on  pegs  in  the  side 
of  the  mow  until  needed  again  next  season. 
This  hay  chute  costs  no  more  and  is  as  easy  to 
build  as  any.  A  light  ladder  may  be  fastened 
to  one  side  of  each  section  for  entrance  to  the 
mow. 

A  great  many  of  these  frames  have  been 
erected,  some  in  very  w^ndy  and  some  in  snowy 
locations,  since  the  plan  was  first  presented  in 
The  Breeder's  Gazette,  and  not  one  has  given 
trouble  to  erect  or  in  use,  so  far  as  I  have  learned. 
Siding  on  this  barn  is  better  put  on  vertically. 


22 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


If  matched  siding  is  desired  it  works  as  well 
vertically  as  horizontally.  The  building  may, 
however,  be  studded  and  siding  put  on  hori- 
zontally. 

In  building  the  joist  frame  barn  the  following 
directions  may  be  of  value : 

Get  one  carpenter  to  superintend  the  job ;  three 
or  four  men  can  find  employment — and  the  more 
men  the  shorter  the  job.  Pile  up  joists  six  or 
eight  high  and  square,  mark  and  cut  off  with  a 
small  crosscut  saw;  pile  each  sort  out  by  itself 
so  you  can  get  hold  of  it  quickly  and  surely. 
Never  make  splices  without  breaking  joints  and 
use  a  block  2'  long  at  the  splice.  Spike  together 
well  at  splices  and  everywhere.  Use  spikes  6" 
long  and  drive  in  aplenty ;  they  are  cheap.  Put 
bents  together  on  the  ground — though  you  may 
finish  spiking  together  after  raising,  as  spikes 
should  be  driven  from  each  side.  Raise  the  bents 
and  brace  up  temporarily  until  you  have  two 
standing,  then  put  on  box  plate,  plumb  very 
carefully  and  put  in  long  side  braces  and  one  or 
two  pieces  of  nail  girts.  That  will  make  the 
frame  very  rigid.  You  can  now  continue  to  raise 
the  bents  one  at  a  time  and  continue  putting  on 
plates  and  braces  as  fast  as  they  are  raised. 

It  will  take  four  men  two  days  to  frame  a  barn 
40x60',  and  if  convenient  they  should  have  four 
others  to  help  raise,  which  will  take  another  day- 
After  the  frame  is  up  as  far  as  the  square,  com- 
plete that  part  and  put  on  the  siding  before 
erecting  the  rafters.  A  scaffold  at  the  level  of 
the  plates  is  convenient,  though  some  have  erected 
the  rafters  Mathout  it.  If  you  wish  to  change  the 
proportions  of  timber  used,  do  so,  but  make  it 
heavier  rather  than  lighter.  A  saving  of  $10 
in  material  might  make  you  many  times  that 
much  trouble.  The  frame  as  it  is  saves  a  great 
amount  of  timber.  Frame  together  the  rafters 
and  most  thoroughly  nail  them  together  before 
raising.  Discard  any  weak  or  uncertain  sticks. 
Use  good  inch  boards  5'  long.  A  trifle  of  ex- 
pense here  gives  you  a  rigid  roof.  Tie  together* 
the  rafters  with  l"x4"  sheeting  across  all  the 
angles  before  raising.  Leave  this  sheeting  on 
until  you  must  have  it  for  laying  on  the  roof. 
Put  two  nails  in  sheeting  instead  of  one  at  each 
intersection  of  rafter.  Raise  the  first  set  of  raft- 
ers at  the  gable  and  very  carefully  stay  them  and 
spike  the  bases  to  the  plates.  Begin  raising 
rafters  in  the  morning  so  you  can  get  them  all 
safe  before  night.  Select  good  2"x8"  long 
stuff ;  run  diagonal  braces  under  the  rafters  from 
the  corners  of  the  building  clear  to  the  center  of 
the  roof,  two  spikes  at  each  intersecting  rafter. 
This  will  make  the  roof  very  rigid.  Get  these 
braces  up  as  soon  as  three  sets  of  rafters  are 


raised.  If  hay  is  to  be  taken  in  at  the  end,  throw 
out  two  sets  of  diverging  rafters  to  hold  the  end 
of  the  track  and  shelter  the  hay  door.  Their 
feet  may  be  spiked  against  the  outer  long  rafters 
and  their  points  thrown  out,  each  pair  2'. 

Brace  the  gable  well.  Hay  doors  should  be 
8'  to  12'  wide.  They  may  be  double  and  their 
upper  ends  fold  down  to  admit  of  swinging 
under  the  roof.  Turn  these  doors  away  from 
direction  of  wind.  Vertical  siding  is  strongest 
and  best  for  this  frame.  Roof  projection  should 
be  2'  at  gables  and  generous  at  eaves.  It  is  best 
added  at  eaves  by  spiking  on  sides  of  rafters 
short  pieces  of  2"x4",  giving  the  same  slope  as 
the  top  part  of  the  roof.  Shingle  this  clear  up. 
Do  not  attempt  to  bend  the  shingles.  Use  gal- 
vanized shingle  nails.  Do  not  leave  out  any 
braces.  Put  2"  blocks  on  stones  under  ends  of 
posts.  When  they  decay  they  can  be  replaced 
and  no  injury  to  posts  results. 

BARN  ROOFS. 

"What  advantages,  if  any,  are  there  in  hip  over 
plain  barn  roofs  ? 

Answering  this  question  a  carpenter  says : 
Fig.  7  is  a  drawing  made  to  scale  of  3/32  of 
an  inch,  or  in  other  words  3/32  of  an  inch  equal 
1'  and  is  designed  to  show  cross  sections  of  three 


.    H 


.  36 

FIG.    7.       THE    PITCH    OF    BARN    ROOFS. 


sets  of  rafters  having  different  pitches.  The 
pitch  of  a  rafter  is  determined  by  rise  as  com- 
pared to  the  span.  In  Fig.  7  the  span  is  36'. 
The  rafters  A  H  and  F  H  have  a  rise  of  12' ;  and 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


23 


since  12'  is  one-third  of  36'  the  rafters  A  H  and 
F  H  are  said  to  have  one-third  pitch.  This  pitch 
has  been  quite  extensively  used  in  the  past,  but 
is  not  so  popular  now.  Improved  hay  machinery 
demands  a  higher  roof  for  best  results. 

The  rafters  A  G  and  F  G  with  a  rise  of  18', 
since  18'  is  one-half  of  36',  are  said  to  be  one-half 
pitch.  The  rise,  18',  equals  half  the  span  36'. 
This  roof  is  growing  in  favor  where  a  plain  roof 
is  used.  This  pitch  is  used  extensively  on  houses 
and  makes  a  very  nice  appearance.  Besides,  shin- 
gles will  last  longer  laid  upon  a  steep  roof  than 
those  laid  upon  a  low  or  flat  roof.  A,  B,  D,  E 
and  F  show  the  outline  of  a  hip  roof,  the  lower 
rafters  of  which  are  full  pitch.  They  rise  at  an 
angle  of  about  63°.  In  full  pitch,  the  rise  dou- 
bles the  run — that  is,  the  rise  is  2"  to  1"  run. 
*By  extending  the  rafters  A  B  and  F  E  to  J  hy 
means  of  the  dotted  lines  B  J  and  E  J,  we  have 
the  outline  of  a  full  pitch  roof,  in  which  in- 
stance the  rise  would  be  36',  the  width  of  the 
span — the  rise  being  equal  to  the  span,  hence  the 
term  full  pitch. 

The  Gothic  coincides  with  this  pitch.  In  barn 
architecture  full  pitch  roofs  are  not  desirable  ex- 
cept when  used  in  connection  with  the  hip  or  curb 
roof.  In  such  roofs,  the  lower  rafters  can  profit- 
ably be  employed  at  full  pitch,  and  by  their  use 
the  greatest  possible  storage  is  secured  in  the 
roof.  In  Fig.  7  the  lower  rafters  A  B  and  F 
E  are  carried  along  the  full  pitch  line  for  a  dis- 
tance of  6',  thereby  just  using  16'  lengths 
They  have  a  run  of  7'  2"  and  rise  of  14'  4". 
The  upper  rafters  B  D  and  E  D  have  one-third 
pitch — that  is,  the  rise  at  D  is  one-third  the  dis- 
tance of  the  span  at  the  hip  at  B  and  E  and 
is  measured  from  a  horizontal  line  through  the 
points  B  and  E. 

In  the  plain  gable  A  H  F  having  one-third 
pitch  we  have  216  square  feet;  in  the  half-pitch 
gable,  324  square  feet  and  in  the  hip-roof  gable 
490  square  feet.  Hence  we  have  a  gain  of  108 
square  feet  in  the  half-pitch  which  equals  50  per 
cent,  and  in  the  hip-roof  gable  we  have  a  gain 
of  274  square  feet,  equal  to  127  per  cent  over  the 
roof  having  one-third  pitch.  The  hip  roof  fur- 
ther shows  a  gain  of  166  square  feet,  or  51  per 
cent  over  the  roof  having  one-half  pitch.  Their 
volumes  are  proportioned.  Taking  three  bams 
of  equal  lengths,  80'  for  instance,  and  with  36' 
widths  and  pitches  as  shown  in  Fig.  7  the  rela- 
tive volumes  of  the  three  roofs  above  the  plates 
would  be  as  follows:  One-third  pitch  roof  17,- 
280  cubic  feet;  half-pitch  roof,  25,920  and  the 
hip  roof  39,200  cubic  feet.  Upon  a  basis  of  512 
cubic  feet  per  ton,  the  capacity  in  tons  is  33.7, 
50.5  and  70.6  respectively.    Hence,  the  one  hav- 


ing half -pitch  roof  has  capacity  for  about  17  tons 
and  the  hip  roof  about  37  tons  more  than  the 
one-third  pitch  roof. 

Viewing  the  subject  from  another  standpoint 
it  requires  about  10'  of  the  uppermost  space  for 
working  modern  hay  tools.  Hence,  with  modern 
hay  tools  hay  could  be  deposited  in  the  roof  hav- 
ing one-third  pitch  at  a  height  indicated  by  the 
arrow  at  a  minor  (See  Fig.  7),  which  is  only  2' 
above  the  height  of  the  plate.  In  the  roof  hav- 
ing half -pitch  hay  could  be  deposited  at  a  point 
as  indicated  at  c  minor,  which  is  8'  above  the 
plate,  and  in  the  hip  roof  hay  could  be  raised 
to  a  height  indicated  at  c  minor,  which  is  llVij' 
above  the  plate.  Hence,  there  is  a  net  gain  of 
91/^'  in  height  at  which  hay  could  be  raised  with 
tools  in  favor  of  the  hip  roof  over  a  roof  having 
only  one-third  pitch.  'Thus  in  the  hip  roof,  there 
is  a  zone  or  belt  having  a  height  of  9I/2'  and  an 
average  width  of  28'  and  running  the  entire 
length  of  the  barn,  all  of  which  could  be  filled 
^vith  hay  by  means  of  hay  tools,  and  all  of  which 
space  is  above  the  point  at  which  hay  could  be 
lifted  with  the  tools  in  a  roof  having  one-third 
pitch.  The  volume  of  this  belt  is  22,040  cubic 
feet — equal  to  43  tons,  which  is  a  very  considera- 
ble mow  in  itself. 

In  approximating  the  cost  of  farm  barns  we 
regard  2%  cents  per  cubic  foot  to  the  plate  as 
about  right.  Of  course  the  cost  varies  somewhat 
with  the  localities.  Upon  this  basis,  the  extra 
volume  secured  by  the  hip  roof  over  that  of  a 
one-third  pitch  would  be  worth  $606.10.  Hence, 
from  the  standpoint  of  dollars  the  hip  roof  as  per 
Fig.  7  is  worth  $606.10  more  than  the  one-third 
pitch.  But  if  we  add  to  this  the  value  of  the 
convenience  and  satisfaction  in  the  use  of  a  self- 
supporting  and  open-center  roof  over  that  of 
one  obstructed  with  timbers  of  various  dimen- 
sions, then  the  problem  is  not  so  easy  of  solution, 
as  the  value  of  the  convenience  and  satisfaction 
in  the  use  of  a  properly  constructed  self-support- 
ing and  open-center  roof  is  inestimable. 

A  MINNESOTA  FARM  BARN. 

The  bam  built  hy  W.  H,  Dunwoody  on  his 
farm  in  JNIinnesota  is  120'  long,  90'  wide,  48' 
high,  and  cost  complete  $20,000.  The  basement 
floor  is  cemented  throughout,  and  on  it  there  is 
a  poultry  house  10'x25',  with  a  glass  front  to 
south,  nesting  boxes,  with  inclines,  roosts  and 
runway  to  outside  yard.  There  also  is  a  stor- 
age room  12'x20'  in  the  west  end  of  the  base- 
ment, together  with  an  old  pump  room  and  wash, 
room  10'x25';  west  stairway  to  main  floor; 
three  box-stalls  12'xl7'  for  dairy  cattle ;  six  stalls 


24 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.      8.       MINNESOTA     FARM     BARN      (ELEVATION). 


0 


IML 


^iirrliiii 


■V-^ 


i 


Off=ice 


T" 


/^eeoM'H- 


FIG.     9.       MINNESOTA    FARM    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


o  pri^   /t^s^ 


ofiPfi*  y*/?<3 


Aoor    or 


FIG.    10.       MINNESOTA    FARM    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


25 


for  dairy  cows;  five  horse  stalls  and  two  box- 
stalls  8'xl2'  for  horses;  two  rows  of  box-stalls 
9x12'  (six  stalls  to  the  row)  with  alleys  be- 
tween ;  12  double  tie-up  stalls  5'  8"  long,  man- 
gers 26",  width  of  stall  8'  9",  each  stall  being 
equipped  with  iron  enamel  water  bowl,  with 
drop  cover,  piped  to  water  supply ;  drain  trenches 
behind  are  connected  with  all  stalls,  18"  wide  by 
3I/2 "  deep ;  large  ventilating  flues  from  base- 
ment to  attic  of  barn.  The  height  of  the  base- 
ment on  north  side  of  barn  is  4'  above  outside 
grade,  giving  large  basement  windows  for  admis- 
sion of  fresh  air.  Hand  extinguishers  are  pro- 
vided in  the  barn  and  fire  hose  on  reels,  con- 
nected to  attic  tanks.  The  root  boiler  room  is 
10x15',  containing  a  large  root  cooker;  ma- 
sonry on  all  sides ;  steel  roof ;  window  for  fuel ; 
root  cellar  12'x2J:',  adjoining  boiler  room;  two 
silos  about  Il'xl3'x30',  cement  plastered ; 
engine  room  containing  15-horsepower  gasoline 
engine;  about  50'  of  line  shaft,  with  pulleys 
to  grinder,  conveyor,  elevator,  sheller  and  cut- 
ter on  floor  above,  and  also  connecting  pump  in 


floor,  above  part  of  the  driveway — this  floor  is 
provided  with  trap  doors  and  when  bays  are  full 
this  floor  can  be  filled  its  full  length)  ;  grain  and 
feed  bins  on  north  side  of  driveway,  connected  to 
conveyor  and  elevator  for  handling  the  grain  and 
feed;  feed  grinder,  cutter,  sheller,  grain  cleaner 
and  elevator  arranged  next  to  bins  on  east  end  of 
floor  and  over  engine  room ;  office  or  men 's  room 
adjoining  with  heater,  bed  and  wash-sink ;  stair- 
way to  second  floor  in  east  end.     (See  Fig.  9.) 

The  second  floor  is  explained  as  follows: 
Men's  room  with  heater  and  furnishings;  large 
storage  platform  adjoining ;  stairs  to  top  of  silos, 
elevator  head  and  water  tanks.  In  the  attic  there 
are  two  water  tanks  holding  about  350  gallons  of 
water.  The  scale  and  sca^s  platform  are  outside 
of  the  barn  on  the  driveway  leading  to  the  east 
end  of  the  barn.     (See  Fig.  10.) 

LOVE  JOY'S  FARM  BARN. 

The  general-purpose  barn  shown  in  Figs.  11, 
12,  13  and  14  was  built  by  A.  J.  Lovejoy  and 


FIG.     11.       LOVEJOY'S    farm    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


pump  room,  and  to  circular  saw  outside;  east 
stairway  to  main  floor ;  artesian  well  pump  room 
off  engine  room.  The  passageways  or  alleys  be- 
tween rows  of  stalls  all  lead  to  doors  on  south 
side  of  barn  opening  into  lower  cattle  yard,  which 
is  divided  into  east  and  west  halves  with  sheds 
on  farther  side;  yards  to  slope  south.  (See 
Fig.  8.) 

The  main  or  first  floor  is  described  thus: 
Machinery  shed  18'x60',  containing  farm  ma- 
chinery, also  separate  tool  room  and  workshop. 
Driveway  from  east  to  west  through  barn  120' 
long;  flooring  3"  matched  plank;  3'  on  center 
floor  timbers  or  joists  under  driveway,  size 
€"xl2";  joists  elsewhere  same  size  but  6'  on 
centers;  hay  and  straw  bays  on  south  side  of 
driveway  (hay  carries  above  the  hay  distributing 


built  on  his  Riverside  Farm  in  Winnebago  Co., 
111.,  in  1903.  It  is  for  horses  and  cattle,  together 
with  machinery,  wagons,  manure  spreader,  car- 
riages, buggies  and  sleighs.  It  also  has  bins  for 
5,000  bushels  of  small  grain,  mow  room  for  hay, 
shredded  fodder,  a  large  amount  of  straw  and  a 
large  tank  of  water  which  supplies  the  barn  and 
adjoining  yards.  It  is  96'x64'  and  is  built  in  a 
first-class  manner,  having  a  joist  frame  made  of 
the  best  grade  of  hemlock  lumber,  with  Wisconsin 
white  pine  siding  and  2"x6"  studding,  on  which 
rosin  paper  is  used  and  the  whole  sheathed  with 
best  kiln-dried  dressed  yellow  pine,  making  an 
interior  finish  equal  to  many  houses.  The  foun- 
dation is  made  of  concrete,  from  screened  gravel 
and  Portland  cement.  Every  post  in  the  build- 
ing rests  on  solid  concrete  piers  set  in  the  ground 


26 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


3',  on  a  4'  base.  The  entire  floor  is  of  concrete, 
8"  thick,  on  a  gravel  fill  of  15",  and  was  made 
with  a  good  finish  by  an  expert  builder  of  con- 
crete sidewalks.  The  approaches  to  each  door 
are  also  concrete  and  a  concrete  sidewalk  extends 


"  m  ""'"""ifei 


rnoNi         ei.rvATiM  KMt^'.i 

FIG.     12.        LOVEJOT'S    F.\RM    BARN     (FRONT    ELEVATION). 

along  the  south  side  of  the  building  to  the  door 
of  the  engine  room.  The  inside  is  divided  into 
suitable  rooms,  as  shown  in  the  plan.  The  engine 
room  is  closed  so  as  to  exclude  dust  or  dirt  from 
the  mill  room.    A  12-horsepower  gasoline  engine 


and  swings  behind  a  wagon  while  standing  on 
scales.  This  elevator  will  elevate  all  kinds  of 
grain  to  the  large  bins  above.  These  bins  have 
hopper  bottoms  with  pipes  leading  to  the  mill 
room  below,  direct  to  the  grinder,  fanning  mill 
and  for  loading  wagons.  The  barn  is  lighted  by 
acetylene  gas  furnished  from  a  plant  which  also 
lights  the  residence  and  farm  office. 

The  barn  was  made  for  convenience  in  han- 
dling feed  and  preparing  it  for  best  results.  No 
hogs  are  kept  in  the  barn,  but  all  feed  is  pre- 
pared in  it  except  the  steaming,  which  is  done  at 
the  feed  house.  All  wagons  are  driven  in  the 
barn  and  all  hitching  and  unhitching  done  in 
it.  The  total  cost  without  any  of  the  machinery, 
engine  and  the  ''L,"  was  about  $5,000,  which  in- 
cludes painting.  The  26'xlOO'  "L"  was  joined 
to  the  barn  for  a  cattle  shed  and  has  arched 
openings  that  can  be  closed  by  roller  doors. 

Where  the  diagram  is  marked  ''platform  grain 
dump ' '  a  set  of  scales  was  put  in  and  an  elevator 
installed  to  carry  grain  to  the  granary  upstairs. 
The  six  large  hopper-bottom  grain  bins  are  on 
the  second  floor.  (Fig.  14.)  The  bay  for  hay 
indicated  in  the  illustration,  was  changed  and 


FIG.    13.       LOVEJOT'S    FARM    BARN     (GROUND    PLAN). 


furnishes  power  enough  to  run  the  grinder,  feed  floored  with  cement,  the  same  as  all  the  rest  of 

cutter,  sheller,  elevator  and  pump  all  at  the  same  the  barn.    The  elevator  does  not  require  a  dump, 

time.     There  is  a  28'  elevator  with  a  swinging  as  the  hopper  swings  round  behind  the  wagon 

extension  that  stands  at  the  side  of  the  driveway  and  grain  is  let  out  into  it  from  the  rear  end  of 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


27 


the  wagon.  Plank  floor  is  laid  in  the  horse  stalls 
on  the  cement,  as  it  was  thought  that  horses 
would  be  less  liable  to  slip.  A  drilled  well  is  in 
the  stable  with  a  100-barrel  tank  above  in  the 
second  story.  A  system  of  water  works  from  the 
elevated  tank  in  the  barn  furnishes  a  good  supply 
of  water  in  the  barn  and  out  in  the  yards. 


tion  are  obtained  by  bending  the  timbers  into  the 
required  shape  instead  of  sawing. 

This  barn  is  designed  to  accommodate  all  the 
feed  and  stock  that  can  be  produced  on  a  farm 
of  about  250  acres  and  yet  allow  for  growth  and 
improvement  for  years  to  come.  In  this,  ample 
allowance  is  made  for  storing  away  implements 


FIG.     14.       LOVEJOT'S    FARM    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR). 


A  better  system  of  ventilation  is  used  than  the 
one  shown.  All  posts  in  the  first  story  are  boxed, 
giving  a  finished  appearance.  The  barn  is  almost 
frost-proof  and  is  very  convenient  and  a  comfort 
to  stock  housed  in  it.  The  front  elevation  is 
shown  in  Fig  12.  A  photographic  view  of  the 
barn  is  presented  in  Fig.  11. 

NEW  TYPE  OF  CIRCULAR  BARN. 

The  illustrations  {Figs.  15  and  16)  show  a 
circular  barn  designed  by  Architect  Benton  Steele 
of  Indiana  and  erected  on  a  farm  in  that  state. 

The  barn  is  102'  in  diameter.  The  system  of 
construction  might  be  termed  balloon  framing, 
as  no  heavy  timbers  are  employed  in  the  barn 
proper.  The  system  of  framing  is  usually  spoken 
of  as  the  bending  system  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  many  of  the  important  features  of  construc- 


and  machinery  and  for  a  battery  of  feed  mills 
and  grinders,  together  with  water  tanks  and 
plenty  of  working  space  in  every  department. 
The  floor  space  shows  stalls  for  cows.  The 
departments  marked  1,  2,  3  and  4  {Fig.  16)  can 
be  used  separately  or  in  part,  or  if  need  be  can 
be  thrown  into  one  continuous  department  as 
occasions  demand,  such  as  when  hauling  out 
manure  or  in  feeding  numbers  of  stock  together. 
The  double  gates  as  shown  are  made  and  hung 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  easily  removed,  and 
the  walls  are  provided  with  a  number  of  sets  of 
"eyes,"  so  that  the  gates  can  be  hung  so  as  to 
provide  any  size  space  desired.  Every  depart- 
ment is  directly  accessible  to  the  outside  doors, 
which  is  a  great  convenience  in  shifting  stock 
from  place  to  place  or  in  case  of  fire.  The  stock 
is  all  fed  the  main  rations  from  the  one  con- 
tinuous feed  alley,  the  feed  being  passed  through 


28 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


chutes  or  trap  doors  in  the  second  floor.  "When 
roughage  is  fed  to  loose  stock  it  is  passed  through 
chutes  at  the  outer  sides  of  the  barn  next  to  the 
wall  into  racks,  which  operate  on  the  plan  of 
self-feeders. 

The  bins  or  cribs  below  are  filled  by  gravity 
from  above.  Portable  corn  bins  may  be  used  on 
the  second  floor  when  needed.  A  solid  concrete 
wall  is  placed  under  the  barn  as  well  as  the  inner 
rows  where  supporting  timbers  rest,  and  special 


FIG.    15.       NEW    TYPE    OF    CIRCULAR    BARN     (ELEVATION). 

precautions  were  observed  so  as  to  exclude  rats 
entirely  from  ever  finding  a  burrowing  place. 
The  windmill  is  a  power  mill  with  a  wheel 


GROUNO  PLAN.  : 
FIG.    15.      NEW   TTPE    OF   CIRCULAR  BARN    (GROUND    PLAN). 


16'  in  diameter,  and  rests  on  a  crib  or  tower  in 
the  center  of  the  barn.  Several  flights  of  stairs 
are  provided  which  furnish  a  means  of  access  to 
the  cupola  where  one  can  look  after  the  workings 
of  the  windmill  or  get  a  view  of  the  surround- 
ing country  for  many  miles.  The  windmill  sup- 
plies power  for  running  machinery  and  pumping 
water,  and  being  placed  at  such  an  altitude  ren- 
ders it  very  sensitive  to  the  slightest  breeze. 

The  second  floor  is  entirely  free  from  obstruc- 
tions with  the  exception  of  the  crib  and  mills, 
as  before  mentioned.  The  roof  is  entirely  self- 
supporting,  no  trusses  being  employed,  nothing 
heavier  than  2"x6"  rafters.  The  mow  floor  has 
an  estimated  hay  capacity  of  350  to  400  tons. 
The  haying  outfit  consists  of  a  circular  track  sus- 
pended about  midway  up  the  span  of  the  roof 
and  operates  an  ordinary  swivel  car  or  carrier, 
in  other  ways  much  the  same  as  in  ordinary  rec- 
tangular barns  with  straight-away  track. 

AN  EXPERIMENT  STATION  BARN. 

The  Iowa  Experiment  Station  barn  at  Ames 
is  a  very  modern  affair,  roomy  and  well  ar- 
ranged. It  is  a  brick  veneer,  three  stories  high, 
50'xl00'.  The  first  or  ground  floor  is  for  stock, 
the  second  for  grain,  implements,  carriages  and 
the  like,  while  the  third  is  the  hay  mow.  The 
silo  is  of  brick,  has  a  4"  dead-air  space  in  the 
wall  and  is  18'  in  diameter  by  28'  deep,  giving 
a  capacity  of  70  tons.  The  root  cellar,  which  is 
under  the  driveway,  also  has  a  hollow  wall.  In 
the  horse  stalls  a  3"  false  floor,  with  wide  cracks 
to  allow  urine  to  drain  away  quickly,  is  laid 
over  the  cement,  which  is  the  flooring  of  the 
cattle  stalls,  all  passages  being  brick-paved.  Over 
those  parts  marked  A,  which  are  ceiled  up  3', 
there  is  a  wire  network  24"  high.  That  in  front 
of  the  horse  stalls  is  hinged  so  that  all  the  feed- 
ing may  be  done  from  the  alley;  The  box-stalls 
for  horses  are  sided  up  5'  with  2"  stuff  and' 
iron  rods  run  the  rest  of  the  way  to  the  ceiling. 
{Bee  Figs.  17,  i5  and  19.) 

In  the  feed-room  the  hay  and  straw  are. 
brought  from  the  third  floor  in  chutes  with  doors, 
at  the  bottom.  The  grain  is  also  brought  down' 
in  small  chutes 'with  cut-offs,  so  that  all-the^ 
mixing  of  feeds  may  be  done  on  the  first  floor.. 
The  hot-water  stove  in  the  herdsman 's  offi(3e  heats 
the  bathroom  and  teamsters'  rooms  above  on- 
the  second  floor  and  also  the  seed-corn  room. 
The  18"  retaining  walls  on  the  southwest  cor- 
ner and  north  side  show  the  difference  in  the 
elevation,  the  ground  on  the  west  being  higher 
than  that  on  the  east  of  these  walls.  On  the 
second  floor  are  the  bedrooms  and  office  of  at- 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNiS. 


29 


FIG.     17.       AN    EXPERIMENT    STATION    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


y^. 


PIG.    18.       AN   EXPERIMENT    STATION  BABK    (SBCOND   FLOOR). 


30 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    19.      AN   EXPERIMENT    STATION   BARN    (ELEVATION). 


tendants.  In  the  corn-room  there  are  racks  all 
around  so  the  seed  corn  can  be  ricked  or  corded 
up  in  them,  giving  better  ventilation  and  econo- 
mizing space. 

The  driveway  is  covered  and  is  roughly  paved 
to  give  horses  a  foothold  in  drawing  loads  over 
it.  A  continuous  chute  from  top  of  silo  permits 
silage  to  be  thrown  from  either  of  the  three  doors 
to  the  feeding-floor.  The  motor-room  just  off 
the  blanket-room  is  for  a  15-horsepower  electric 
motor.  A  line  shaft  from  here  into  the  feed 
grinding  room  allows  for  belting  to  feed  cutters 
and  other  machinery.  All  the  feed-bins  have 
sloping  bottoms  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  grain 
through  the  chutes  to  the  mixing-room.  Venti- 
lator courses  from  the  ground  floor  to  the  outlets 


on  top  give  ample  ventilation.  A  stand  pipe  and 
fire  hose  on  reels  afford  partial  protection  from 
fire  within,  while  larger  hydrants  outside  have 
been  placed  near  the  building. 

A  STOCK  AND  HAY  BARN. 

The  illustrations  {Figs.  20,  21  and  22)  are  of 
one  of  the  most  commodious  and  best  arranged 
stock  and  hay  barns  in  the  West.  The  building 
in  the  main  stands  132'  east  and  west  by  112' 
north  and  south  and  the  wings  are  32'  wide.  The 
details  of  the  basement  are  very  fully  shown 
{Fig.  22)  and  the  conveniences  of  such  an  ar- 
rangement are  obvious.  In  the  basement  and 
immediately  under  the  wagon  floor  there  are  lo- 


FIG.    20.      A   STOCK   AND  HAY   BARN    (FRONT   ELEVATION). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


31 


FIG.   21.      A   STOCK  AND   HAY   BARN    (REAR  ELEVATION). 


cated  three  bins  for  grain  or  ground  feed  and    above,  the  sheller,  or  grinder,  or  root-cutter,  or 
roots.    They  are  filled  through  trap-doors  from    corn-crusher  being  placed  over  the  traps  and  the 


/{*■  i/w,A  •  //est.  //ij/Wf  mfMfrjmmM. 


FIG.    22.      A   STOCK  AND  HAT  BARN    (BASEMENT  PLAN). 


32 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


power  furnished  by  the  belt  from  the  three-horse 
tread  power  shown  in  the  ground  plan  of  sec- 
ond floor.  Immediately  adjoining  the  feed-rooms 
are  two  calf  boxes  that  will  conveniently  accom- 
modate about  twenty  youngsters  each,  and  the 
rest  of  the  floor  is  devoted  to  double  stalls 
7'  deep,  except  as  otherwise  indicated  in  the 
diagram.  The  water  tank  is  in  the  center  of 
the  barn  and  large  gates  expedite  the  handling 
of  the  cattle  back  and  forth  from  the  tank  to 
the  stalls,  or  to  the  yards  if  they  are  turned  out. 
There  are  good-sized  box-stalls  for  the  service 
bulls,  with  an  exercising  yard  opening  out  from 
each,  and  in  the  south  wing  there  are  four  box- 
stalls  for  cows  calving  in  cold  weather  or  for 
any  other  use  desired.  The  driveways  are  12' 
wide,  so  that  a  team  can  be  driven  through  the 


CROUHD  rL/M 


FIG.    23.       INDIANA    FARM    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 

barn  from  either  direction  and  the  manure 
loaded  onto  a  wagon  or  spreader  and  carted  to 
the  fields.  The  basement  is  surrounded  by  a 
stone  wall  and  is  very  warm,  though  amply 
lighted  and  ventilated  by  numerous  windows  and 
doors.  The  water  is  piped  underground  to  the 
trough  from  well  and  windmill  outside  and  is 
controlled  by  a  float-valve  or  by  a  cut-ofi'  rod,  as 
desired. 

On  the  second  or  main  floor  there  are  grain 
bins  and  corn  cribs,  8'x24'  and  14'  high,  and 
office  and  store-room,  each  14'xl6',  a  space  re- 
served for  feed-cutter  and  for  hay-rake  and 
hay-loader  and  yet  additional  room  in  the  three 
mows  for  200  tons  of  hay.  The  capacity  for 
grain,  including  both  floors,  is  from  7,000  to 
8,000  bushels.  The  barn  will  accommodate  125 
head  of  cattle,  including  from  25  to  30  calves. 


The  building  is  very  substantially  constructed 
and  with  due  regard  to  general  symmetry  and 
effect.  As  it  stands  it  is  a  very  attractive  build- 
ing, well  painted  and  trimmed  and  cost  about 
$4,000  when  built. 

AN  INDIANA  FARM  BARN. 

Fig.  23  shows  the  ground  plan  of  a  barn  in 
which  cattle  and  calves  may  be  fed,  20  cows  kept 
(in  Van  Norman  stalls)  and  "baby  beef"  pro- 
duced. It  is  also  provided  with  stalls  for  horses. 
The    diagram    shows    how    the  ground  floor  is 


r < 

.5 
1? 

omvc  rieoK 

,                                         MI  It 

r 

tiie 

r 

llllllllllll>-- 

S 

■ 

SCCONO    rtooH 

FIG.    24.      INDIANA  FARM   BARN    (SECOND    FLOOR). 

divided.  Fig.  24  shows  the  arrangement  of  the 
second  floor.  This  barn  has  a  cement  floor 
throughout  and  is  conveniently  arranged  for  the 
uses  to  which  it  is  put.  Two  silos  are  shown  in 
one  corner,  and  the  corn  silage  stored  in  them 
is  very  successfully  used  in  the  making  of  "baby 
beef." 

WHITEHALL  FAR.AI  BARN. 

Figs.  25,  26,  27,  28  and  29  illustrate  the  eleva- 
tion, floor  and  other  plans  of  the  beef  cattle 
and  horse  barn  which  E.  S.  Kelly  recently  built 
on  his  Whitehall  Farm  in  Ohio.  Fig.  28  shows 
the  ground  floor  on  which  there  are  stalls  for 
cattle  and  horses.  All  the  stonework  is  of  good 
native  limestone,  laid  up  in  good  lime  and  sand 
mortar.  The  retaining  walls  around  the  drives 
have  half  cement  and  half  lime  in  the  mortar. 
All  the  mill  stuff  and  dimension  lumber  in  the 
basement  are  of  sound  native  white  oak.  The 
8"xl2"  beams  in  the  drives  on  the  outside  are 
also  of  white  oak.  All  millstuff  and  timbers  above 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


33 


FIG.    25.       WHITEHALL   FARM    BARN     (FRONT    ELEVATION). 


the  basement  are  first  quality  long  leaf  southern 
pine ;  6"xlO"  middle  tie  beams  are  set  back  4" 
from  face  of  posts  to  allow  studding,  which  is 
2"x4",  to  pass  without  cutting.  The  floor  of 
two  outside  drives  is  made  of  2"xl2"  oak  alter- 
nating with  2"x3"  oak  pieces  set  on  edge,  all 
laid  on  8"xl2"  white  oak  stringers.  The  entire 
first  floor  is  dressed  with  lyj'  dressed  and 
matched  yellow  pine  flooring  and  the  driveways 
on  the  flrst  floor  have  an  upper  floor  of  1" 
dressed  and  matched  oak.     The  entire  basement 


is  ceiled  all  around  the  stalls,  passages  and  alley- 
ways 4'  high  with  1"  dressed  and  matched  yel- 
low pine.  The  stable  doors  are  built  in  two 
parts,  upper  half  3'  and  the  lower  half  4'  high. 
The  roof  of  the  Whitehall  barn  and  ventilators 
are  covered  with  the  best  quality  of  16"  cedar  or 
cypress  shingles.  The  entire  barn  is  framed  to 
secure  the  greatest  strength  and  permanency  of 
shape  with  the  least  weakening  of  tim1)ers.  The 
windows  in  the  ])asement  are  arranged  to  slide 
sideways,  as  directed.    The  entire  outside  of  the 


FIG.    26.      WHITEHALL   FARM  BARN    (END  ELEVATION). 


34 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


(f/>i.i/o  inoN  Hooo 


m 


FIG.    27. WHITEHALL    F.\RM    BARN     (INTERIOR    CONSTRUCTION). 


CATTLEi, 


f_j \ r   f    \     1 

I  HAVRACK  LJFiiD  R<CK  BtLOtV'   H  HAYRACK  D 


HAYRACK  Prt  CO  RACK  BELOW   B     > 

-^  HAY  tHUT|;         ALLEr  ^ 

HAYRACK        nrrengACK  BELOW   n  hayrack         n  FEEDR<CK  B(IQW  n    "^    rf 


•I5"0 


CATTLE 


DRAIN 

HAVRACK 

Z]   FEtDRflCK  BtLOW    H     HAYRACK      I 

ALLEY               H-Ky  CJHUTE 

hayrack 

JFFfDRflf.K    BELOW    □    HAYRACK 

y     .   isio' U  .  _  .■  \<6  . 

,50            "cTStTLF 

DflAIN 

120  FEET 
PIG.    28.      WHITEHALL  FARM    BARN    (GROUND   FLOOR). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


35 


T=r- 


-H^ 


-P=P- 


5HIN6LE 


lCf«10' 


di2-.il 


MxlO 


HAV  chute! 


LADDER 


^12-.  12 


1=1    '    U        R    F=!         I 


^I2«I2 


iai2-.i2 


GRANARY 


HAYCHUtt 


BxlOl/ 


lOVlQlE 


FIG.    29.       WHITEHALL   FARM    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


barn  is  covered  with  4"  drop  siding.  The  cattle 
floors  are  made  of  cement.  The  barn  cost  about 
$7,000. 

A  WISCONSIN  FARM  BARN. 

J.  W.  Martin 's  Wisconsin  barn,  shown  in  Figs. 
30,  31  and  32,  has  a  stone-wall  foundation  20" 
high ;  the  first  story  8'  is  double-boarded  with 
paper  between  and  shiplap  floor  above.    Fig.  31 


shows  the  arrangement  of  the  interior  and  Fig. 
32  the  plan  of  construction.  The  approaches  to 
the  main  driveway  and  end  doors  are  paved  with 
cement.  Box-stalls  occupy  the  entire  first  floor 
of  the  barn  and  one  stall  is  cemented  for  a  rest- 
less bull. 

The  cow  barn  {Fig.  30)  is  30x80'  with  Bid- 
well  stalls  and  a  driveway  between  the  rows  of 
cow  stalls  on  through  the  middle.  This  barn 
would  be  more  convenient  if  it  were  34'  wide. 


36 


FARiM  BUILDINGS. 


A  KENTUCKY  FARM  BARN. 

The  general  description  and  plan  shown  in 
Figs.  33,  34  and  35  are  of  a  Kentucky  farm 
barn  built  a  decade  ago.  It  is  a  bank  barn  and 
stands  on  high  ground  where  natural  drainage  is 


good.  The  size  is  62x74',  and  from  basement 
floor  to  the  wind-engine  tower  the  height  is  56', 
divided  into  four  stories.  The  basement  wall  is 
of  limestone,  22"  wide  and  8'  high,  and  the  posts 
in  the  basement  supporting  the  framework  are 
20  in  number  and  are  made  of  oak,  12"xl2". 
The  parts  of  the  frame  are  10"xlO",  16'  high. 


FIG.  30.       WISCONSIN    FARM    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


FIG.    32.       WISCONSIN    FARM    BARN     (CROSS-SECTION). 

The  entire  framework  is  of  oak,  the  shingles  of 
poplar  and  the  siding  of  northern  pine.  There 
were  used  in  the  structure  100,000  feet  of  lumber 
and  50,000  shingles,  and  the  total  cost  was 
about  $3,900.  The  diagrams  of  basement  and 
main  floor  (Figs.  34  and  35)  are  quite  complete 


FIG.    31.       M'LSCONSIN    FARM    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


FIG.  33.       KENTUCKY     FARM     BARN      (ELEVATION). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


37 


and  need  but  little  explanation.  There  are  two 
feed  aisles,  with  a  cross  aisle  and  40  box- 
stalls  for  grown  animals,  and  the  cross  or  calf 
aisle  will  accommodate  50  calves.  The  feed 
descends  through  a  chute  from  the  third  story 
and  two  cars  await  to  carry  it  down  the  aisles, 
along  which  it  is  distributed  to  the  stalls.  The 
columns  in  the  second  story,  which  extend  up- 
ward and  also  form  the  third  story,  are  36  in 
number  and  10"xlO"  in  size.  The  floor  of 
this  story  is  double,  with  pitched  felt  between, 
which  protects  the  animals  below  from  those 
above.  The  floor  is  inclined  each  way  from  the 
center  sufficiently  to  cause  proper  drainage. 
The   entrance   to   this  storv   is  through   double 


D  Oull  5uU 


ina 


I  Hi,  Cboic 


-^V. 


3» 


FIG.   34.       KENTUCKT  FAUSI  BARX    (FLOOR  FLAN). 


D  D 


D  D 


^ 


I 

I 

'-"  nv   --  --■V 

FIG.    35.       KENTUCKY    FARM    BARN     (BASEMENT). 


doors,  14'  high  (FiCf.  33),  via  an  elevated  ma- 
cadamized drive  extending  outwardly  from  each. 
Scales  are  placed  at  one  door,  so  that  the  grain 
is  weighed  by  the  wagonload  as  it  is  taken  from 
the  barn.  The  wagon  passes  along  the  aisle  and 
out  at  the  opposite  door.  A  gigantic  hay-lift 
reaches  down  from  above,  takes  up  a  load  of  hay. 
and  puts  it  in  any  desired  part  of  the  third  and 
fourth  stories  or  hay  loft,  which  loft  has  a  ca- 
pacity of  500  bales.  The  second  story  has 
14  calving  stalls,  as  shown  in  the  diagram, 
which  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  readily  be 
converted  in  case  of  necessity  into  four  stalls 
each,  making  room  for  56  cows.  In  the  center  or 
main  aisle,  12'  wide,  there  is  room  for  50  calves. 
This  gives  the  barn  a  capacity  of  196  animals, 
all  sizes.  There  also  is  an  office  on  the  second 
floor.  Just  outside  the  building  a  cistern  which 
liolds  500  barrels  furnishes  the  water  for  the 
entire  building  through  a  system  of  pipes.  The 
third  story  contains  the  bran  bin,  corn  boxes  and 
cut-feed  room,  also  the  large  cutting-box,  the 
corn  sheller  and  the  pumping  machinery,  wliich 
are  driven  by  wind  power.  So  complete  is  the 
arrangement  in  every  particular  that  one  good 
man  can  easily  feed,  water  and  care  for  the  stock 
and  keep  the  barn  in  order. 

•     AN  OHIO  FARM  BARN. 

The  Ohio  farm  barn  shown  in  Fig.  38  is 
42x84',  24'  to  stjuare,  with  curb  roof  and  pur- 
lin posts.  The  rafters  are  20'  and  12',  cut  so 
each  covers  one-fourth  the  width  of  the  building; 
all  frame  is  of  plank  sided  with  drop  siding,  put 
on  up  and  down.  The  barn  is  built  on  a  stone 
foundation  and  is  covered  with  slate,  single  lap 
on  steep  deck  and  double  lap  on  upper  deck.  The 
hay  door  is  8'  wide  from  the  mow  floor  to  the 
comb;  hood  4'  Avide  on  each  side.  The  lower 
story  is  8'  in  the  clear,  mow  14'  to  square.  30' 
to  purlin  plates.  The  plank  frame  is  a  great  im- 
provement, certainly  in  cheapness  and  strength. 

A  BANK  BARN. 

In  many  locations  bank  barns  may  be  cheaply 
constructed.  The  plan  submitted  is  for  a  bank 
barn  that  will  hold  25  tons  of  hay,  have  room 
in  the  basement  for  eight  horses  and  about 
20  liead  of  cattle,  with  room  above  for  about 
1,000  bushels  of  corn  and  800  bushels  of  small 
grain.  In  addition  space  is  allotted  on  this  floor 
for  implements,  wagon  and  buggy. 

The  basement  plan  is  merely  meant  to  be  sug- 
gestive. Cattle  may  he  turned  loose,  as  sheep 
would  be.     The  feed  alleys  should  be  formed  by 


38 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


the  mangers,  these  to  be  movable  so  that  they 
can  be  taken  out  for  cleaning.  Fig  36  (first 
floor)  shows  a  driveway,  two  corncribs  and  an 
oats  and  wheat  bin.    These  could  be  decked  over 


and  hay  put  above  except  the  part  under  the 
driveway  directly  under  the  comb  of  the  roof. 
Hay  is  to  be  thrown  down  in  chutes  about  314' 
square,  reaching  to  the  feed  alleys,  and  a  hole 


t-f/t 


Ul 

-I 

FB£l>  AlUBK 

^ 

M.AN(ieK 

1 

Ul 

tatt 

/t 

_  PoftR      

X»l>»*- 

FIG.     36.       A    BANK    RARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


IS 


o 


I 


1^    Joo^ 


o 


FIG.     37.       A    BANK    BARN     (FIRST    FLOOR). 


FEED 


BOX 
QX14 


BOX 
11X14 


RARO  RO 


7H0RSE  STALLS 


BOX 
14XZ8 


84 


BOX 

24X28 


D  D 


FIG.    38.       AN    OHIO    BARN     (GROUND    PLAN    AND    CROSS-SECTION). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


39 


may  be  left  open  in  the  driveway  covered  by  a 
trap-door.  If  this  barn  were  built  of  joist  frame 
and  most  of  the  framing  stuff  secured  on  the 
farm,  and  if  the  farmer  himself  were  at  all 
dexterous  in  the  use  of  a  saw  and  hammer,  the 
cost  may  be  within  $450.  The  size  of  the  ground 
plan  is  36x48'.     (Fig.  37.) 

A  BASEMENT  BARN. 

The  barn  and  carriage  house  shown  in  Figs. 
39,  40  and  41,  will  accommodate  three  horses  and 
three  cows.  The  second  story  is  used  for  hay 
and  is  24x30',  with  a  height  of  about  10'.  The 
basement  is  8'  in  the  clear,  24'x30',  has  two 
windows  on  the  north  and  two  on  the  south, 
hinged  at  the  top  and  when  opened  swing  up- 
ward and  are  caught  by  a  wooden  latch.  On  the 
east  there  is  a  window  2'x3',  lighting  the  feed- 
room  between  the  horses  and  cows.  The  wall  is 
range-work  stone  on  three  sides  and  the  east  side 
is  framed  and  weather-boarded.  The  entire  floor 
is  paved  with  cement  and  tile-drained  under  the 
walls,  so  the  basement  is  dry,  well  lighted,  cool 
in  summer  and  warm  in  winter.  The  ventilation 
is  complete  by  opening  windows  on  three  sides 
in  warm  weather  and  the  transom  over  the 
entrance  at  head  of  stairway.  In  the  winter 
warm  air  passes  up  a  ventilating  shaft  to  the 


ventilator  on  top  of  the  roof.  The  granary  is  set 
up  from  the  floor  one  foot  and  out  from  walls 
a  foot,  so  it  is  dry  and  rat-proof.     It  and  the 


C^or/z. 


A^i//reef/ 


Oayi^ 


Cows 


-»J 


/3'x  y      t- 


^er/c///ig 


K 


FIG     40.       A    BASEMENT     BARN     (GROUND     FLOOR). 


FIG.     39.       A    BASEMENT    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


40 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


bedding-room  occupy  the  back  part  of  the  base- 
ment, leaving  the  front  part  nearest  the  light  and 
sunshine  for  the  horse  and  cow  stalls.  The  horse 
stalls  are  4'  6"xl2'.  The  partitions  of  1"  oak 
are  set  into  the  posts,  so  there  are  no  nails  or 
bolts  to  injure  horses. 

The  hay-racks  are  perpendicular,  with  rounds 
3'  long  set  4"  apart.     The  back  of  the  racks  is 

^>^' 


^ 


r 


24-  'X  /2  '6' 


I- 


^ 


j> 


I- 


A' 


/Y 


/V 


J[ 


S 


^ 

^ 


FIG.      41.       A     BASEMENT     BARN      ( MAIX     FLOOR)- 

boarded  tight,  sloping,  leaving  a  space  o£  6"  for 
hay  at  the  bottom  and  18"  at  the  top,  being 
filled  from  the  trap-doors  in  the  hallway  on  first 
floor.  The  stall  on  the  east  side  is  1'  wider  than 
the  otlier  two  to  make  more  room  for  passing 
from  the  feedway  into  the  stable.  The  bed- 
ding-room opens  into  the  stable  behind  the 
horses  and  is  filled  from  the  trap-door  at  the 
right  of  ■  carriage  entrance  on  first  floor.  The 
granary  is  divided  for  corn,  oats  and  mill-feed 
with  a  drop  door  at  the  bottom  of  each,  so  feed 
is  removed  and  the  doors  always  closed  to  keep 
out  rats. 

The  cow  stable  is  fitted  with  stanchions  and  a 
drop  6"  deep  and  4'  6"  back.  The  litter  from 
horse  stalls  is  pressed  into  the  drop  to  absorl) 
the  moisture  from  cows,  and  in  front  of  tlie  cov.- 
stable  stands  a  low-down  manure  truck,  which  is 
removed  to  the  meadows  or  fields  when  filled. 
At  the  liead  of  the  feed-room  is  a  water  faucet 
connecting  with  a  cistern  on  the  bank,  to  which 
the  water  from  the  roof  is  piped.  There  is  also 
a  trough  of  spring  water  in  the  barn  lot. 


The  front  elevation  is  shown  in  Fig.  39.  The 
double  doors  to  the  right  open  into  the  car- 
riage-room. The  double  doors  on  the  left  open 
into  the  shop,  which  is  fitted  up  with  bench,  vise, 
tool  chest,  and  so  on,  and  lighted  by  two  win- 
dows opposite  the  doors.  The  central  door  en- 
ters the  hall  to  the  hay-mow  and  the  stairway 
into  the  basement.  Into  it  hay  falls  from  the 
mow  at  the  far  end  and  is  put  into  the  racks 
through  trap-doors  that  fall  back  against  the 
partition.  In  warm  weather  these  trap-doors  are 
kept  open.  In  cold  weather  they  are  closed 
down. 

The  plan  of  first  floor,  as  well  as  that  of  tho 
basement,  is  drawn  to  a  scale  of  %"  to  the  foot. 
(See  Figs.  40  and4i.) 

A — double  doors  8'x8'  9"  to  carriage-room; 
B — single  door  6'x3'  3"  and  transom  3'  3"  by 
14";  C— double  door  7x8'  to  shop;  D— hall- 
way 5'  6"  by  24';  E — trap-door  for  bedding  be- 
low; F — trap-door  for  feed  to  granary  below; 
G — stairway  to  basement ;  I — ladder  to  hay-mow ; 
J — entrance  to  cow  stable ;  K — entrance  to  horse 
stable ;  L — water  faucet ;  N — trap-doors  to  hay- 
racks below. 

The  building  is  covered  with  best  pine  shin- 
gles, weather-boarded  with  dressed  lumber,  l)at- 
tened  and  painted.  The  6"x6"  corner  posts  are 
14'  long.  The  floors  to  shop  and  carriage-room 
are  1^4"  sycamore  and  the  floor  to  the  hay-mow  is 
tongued  and  grooved  pine  flooring  with  no  knot- 
holes. 

A  KENTUCKY  STOCK  BARN. 

The  draAvings  {Figs.  42  and  43)  are  of  a 
Kentucky  stock  barn  20'   wide,   surrounding   a 


FIG.    42.       A    KEXTUCKY    STOCK    BARN     (MAIN    FLOOR). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARN8. 


41 


feed-lot  100'  in  diameter.  The  feed-shed  with 
trough  and  rack  next  to  wall  has  the  south  side 
open  to  the  feed-lot.  The  barn  has  a  sheep  de- 
partment, hay  rack  next  to  the  outside  wall  and 
small  stalls  for  ewes  and  young  lambs.    It  is  also 


FIG.     43.       A    KENTUCKY     STOCK    BARN      (HAY     MOW). 

provided  with  stalls  for  milch  cows  and  calves, 
boxes  for  bran  and  crushed  corn  and  box-stalls 
for  horses.  There  is  an  8'  unboxed  passage  out- 
side and  a  loft  over  all  except  the  scales  and 


PLAN  FOR  SMALL  BARN. 

Fig.  45  shows  a  barn  with  four  double  horse 
stalls,  one  box-stall  and  room  for  30  cows  and 
20  other  cattle.  It  is  seldom  satisfactory  to 
combine  a  horse  and  cow  barn,  as  the  latter  can 
be  more  economically  built  by  making  it  only  30' 
Avide,  but  this  does  not  suit  so  well  for  the  horse 
stalls.  If  one  could  dispense  with  the  driveway 
it  would  be  better  to  cut  off  as  much  as  needed 
for  the  horse  stable  and  place  the  stalls  across 


3fiEO        ICXS8 


NANOER  fuP  f-etDING  CATTLE TN  SnED 


HOfiSESTAU 

grr  wide 


DOUBLE 
HORSeSTALL 


Fern  al  /  cy    e  ft  wide 


OATS 


MA  /VO£\R 


COJ^ 


•S  TAUL5 


Dftive     WAY 


OOOf) 


horse: 
9  FT 


STALLS 
W/D£ 


T 

cow 


I    T 

STALLS 


FCFD     ALLEY 


FIG.     45.       PLAN     FOR     A     SMALL     B.A.RN      (GROUND     FLOOR.) 


SLiDiiMO         DOOaS. 

COW 

STALLS 

oramaRies  on 

Tn'S   PART 

• 

MO\A/  Clear    to  CjROuno 
32'  X  «+o' 

WIDE 

DOivE    WAV 
le'xao' 

oe?AfsiAPiCS  OfM 
TmS     PART 

STALLS 

5' 

WIDE 

'oooo' 

^LiOlNO        OOOP& 

o'x    6o' 

FIG.    44.       BARN    FOR    A    SMALL    FARM     (GROUND    PLAN    AND    CROSS-SECTION). 


gateway,  which  are  open  for  hoisting  hay  with  the  building  with  an  entry  from  the  outside  to 

fork  on  an  endless  track.     In  this  loft  there  is  each  double  stall.    The  oats  bin  should  be  placed 

room  to  store  shredded  corn  and  different  kinds  overhead,  so  that  oats  can  be  drawn  down  through 

of  hay.    A  crib  should  be  made  separate  and  rat-  a  spout  near  the  horse  stalls.     This  barn  with 

proof.  high  curb  roof  will  hold  about  60  tons  of  hay. 


42 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


GOOD  TYPE  OF  FARM  BARN. 

The  plan  illustrated  in  Fig.  46  shows  a  cattle 
barn  which  is  96'x48',  It  is  a  pole  barn  with 
posts  20'  high,  and  a  corncrib  80'xl2'  runs 
through  the  center  of  the  barn ;  the  lower  boards 
of  the  crib  are  hinged  and  feed  boxes  built  on  a 
level  with  the  crib  bottom  so  as  to  make  practi- 


FIG.  46.   GOOD  TYPE  OF  FARM  BARN  (END  ELEVATION). 

cally  a  self-feeder,  especially  when  feeding  shelled 
corn.  Hay  racks  on  the  sides  are  80'  long.  Hay 
is  put  in  at  the  ends  of  the  barn.  Sliding  doors, 
controlled  by  weights,  are  used  at  the  ends  of 
the  mow.  They  are  closed  when  the  hay  is  in 
the  mow.  There  are  doors  alongside  of  the  hay 
mow.  When  filling  the  mow  a  space  of  4'  be- 
tween the  hay  and  the  sides  of  the  barn  may 
be  left  so  that  hay  may  be  thrown  into  the  racks 
when  feeding.  The  south  end  is  open ;  the  north 
end  has  doors  which  are  closed  in  bad  weather 
This  barn  will  easily  accommodate  100  cattle. 

BARN  FOR  SMALL  FARM. 

A  transverse  driveway  in  a  barn  is  rather  a 
waste  of  space,  as  it  usually  shelters  only  the 
farm  wagon,  yet  it  is  often  desired  and  in  this 
plan  {Fig.  44)  it  is  made  to  do  duty  as  a  feed 
alley.  There  are  stalls  for  four  horses  and  five 
cows  and  a  large  mow  reaching  to  the  ground 
and  granaries  over  the  drive  on  each  side,  where 
they  are  readily  filled  by  hoisting  the  grain  with 
a  hay-carrier  rope.  Where  roofs  are  40'  wide 
or  more  there  should  be  the  truss  method  of 
framing  rafters,  using  2"x4"  braces  beneath  the 
angle,  fastened  by  short  pieces  of  l"x4".  This 
truss  must  be  on  both  sides  of  the  roof;  it  is 
shown  on  one  side  only  in  the  diagram. 


A  UNIVERSITY  CATTLE  BARN. 

The  cattle  barn  at  Purdue  University  is  in 
reality  a  dairy  barn,  as  the  beef  cattle  wing  has 
not  been  erected.  The  plan  calls  for  two  wings 
placed  at  right  angles  and  a  covered  yard  on 
the  south.  (See  Figs.  47,  48  and  49.)  The 
structure  is  two  stories  high  with  a  curb  roof. 
The  dairy  wing  sets  north  and  south  and  is  86' 
long  and  38'  wide.  The  first  floor  of  this  wing 
contains  an  office,  water  closet,  milk  room,  feed 
room,  scales,  cow  stable,  calf  pens  and  box-stalls. 
The  second  story  is  for  the  storage  of  gtain  and 
rough  feeds. 

In  the  northwest  corner  an  office  is  provided 
for  the  herdsman,  where  the  breeding  records  of 
the  herd  are  kept.  The  milk  room  which  has  no 
direct  entrance  into  the  cow  stable  is  equipped 
with  milk  scales,  separator,  wash  sinks,  steam, 
drain  boards  for  drying  utensils,  and  utensils 
rack.  The  floor  is  concrete  with  a  bell-trap  drain 
in  the  center. 

The  cow  stable  is  40'x38'  and  accommodates 
20  milking  cows.  {Fig.  49. )  It  is  separated  from 
the  calf  pens  and  box-stalls  by  a  sliding  door. 
The  floor  and  wainscoting,  as  high  as  the  win- 
dow sills,  are  concrete.  The  remainder  of  the 
walls  and  ceiling  is  finished  in  hard  pine  and 
oiled.  A  patent  iron  stall  is  used  in  connection 
with  a  platform  six  inches  above  the  general 
floor  level  on  which  the  cows  stand.  {Fig.  48.) 
Back  of  them  in  addition  to  the  drop  there  is  a 
shallow  gutter  14"  in  width,  which  slopes  from 
either  end  to  the  center  where  there  is  a  bell- 
trap  drain  located.  The  floor  from  the  gutter 
back  to  the  wall  is  finished  roughly  and  slopes 
slightly  toward  the  gutter  so  that  the  water 
readily  drains  off  into  it.  There  is  no  joint 
where  the  wainscoting  and  wall  meet ;  the  con- 
crete is  continuous  and  the  angle  is  finished  with 
a  curved  trowel.  The  mangers  are  of  concrete 
and  rounded  at  the  bottom  so  that  they  are 
easily  kept  clean. 

The  King  system  is  used  for  ventilating  the 
barn.  The  windows  hinge  at  the  bottom  and 
open  into  the  barn  at  the  top.  The  south  end  of 
the  barn  contains  three  large  box-stalls  and  a 
large  calf  pen  with  two  movable  partitions  on 
pulleys  and  weights.  The  feed  bins  are  at  the 
north  end  of  the  cow  stable,  although  entirely 
shut  off  from  it.  The  silage  is  taken  into  the 
feedway  from  the  silo  outside  the  barn.  The 
silo  is  a  round  stave  silo  built  of  Oregon  fir,  16' 
in  diameter  and  30'  high. 

The  mill  room  on  the  northeast  corner  is 
equipped  with  a  motor,  grinder,  sheller,  corn 
splitter  and  feed  cutter.     The  judging  pavilion 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


43 


FIG.    47.       UNIVERSITY    CATTLE    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


tJyi-U_A-J-J^ 


FIG.    48.       UNIVERSITY    CATTLE    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


44 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    49.       UNIVERSITY    CATTLE    BARN     (INTERIOR    SHOWING    COW    STALLS). 


located  on  the  northwest  is  50'  in  diameter,  well 
lighted,  steam-heated  and  accommodates  100 
students.  The  steam  is  taken  from  a  small 
sectional  boiler  under  the  milk  room  and  office. 

A  MICHIGAN  BARN. 

The  barn  and  yards  illustrated  in  Figs.  50, 
51  and  52  are  all  connected.  The  barn  prop- 
er is  cemented  on  cobble-stones.  The  yards, 
whether  open  or  closed,  all  alleyways  and  drives, 
and  the  floor  of  silo  building  are  brick.  There 
are  seven  cement  watering  troughs  that  hold  50 
barrels  each,  supplied  from  a  tank  65'  in  the 
clear  that  holds  550  barrels.  The  tank  is  filled 
by  windmills.  On  top  of  the  barn,  Fig.  51, 
there  is  a  windmill  which  is  for  grinding  pur- 
poses and  if  it  is  kept  running  by  day  when 
there  is  any  wind  and  the  hopper  is  kept  full, 
it  will  supply  feed  for  300  cattle.  This  barn 
was  erected  recently  in  Calhoun  Co.,  INIich.,  by 
A.  Clirystal. 

The  entry  to  the  barn  is  from  the  north  end, 
and  when  you  go  into  the  barn  you  can  see  clear 
througli  to  the  silos,  although  there  are  two  or 
three  doors.  The  alleyway  goes  right  through 
from  end  to  end,  not  wide  enough,  however,  for 


a  wagon.  The  wagon  entries  are  from  the  west 
to  east  and  east  to  west.  You  drive  over  the 
scales  and  go  right  through  to  on.e  of  the  open 
yards  on  the  other  side  or  vice  versa  and  hay 
is  put  up  on  both  sides  above  the  stable  and 
above  the  cow  stalls.  There  is  another  entry 
between  the  silos  and  the  l)arn,  all  bricked,  to 
put  hay  up  above  the  cow  stalls. 

Every  yard  is  watered.  There  is  water  in  the 
l:arn  right  at  the  cow  stalls  from  a  hydrant. 

When  entering  the  north  entrance  there  is  a 
general  carriage  house  and  floor.  One  can  go 
through  another  door  and  come  to  the  stable. 
Horses  are  on  both  sides.  Through  another  door 
you  come  to  the  barn  floor.  On  the  east  side 
of  the  alley  you  go  through  the  barn  from  the 
north  and  this  is  where  the  meal  comes  from 
the  grinder.  On  the  other  side  is  a  granary  and 
feed  room.  To  the  east  of  the  alley  you  come 
to  the  mixing  floor.  East  of  that  is  a  few  cow 
stalls.  On  the  other  side  are  cow  stalls  alto- 
gether and  calf  stalls  behind  them,  both  east  and 
west  of  the  alleyway.  The  barn  has  stalls  for 
65  cows  and  60  calves.  On  each  side  of  the 
barn  there  are  four  doors  so  that  the  cows  can 
go  out  from  the  barn  on  each  side,  going  into 
four  distinct  vards.    Behind  each  four  cows  are 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


45 


FIG.     50.       MICHIGAN    BARN     (END    ELEVATION). 


FIG.     51.       MICHIG.VN    BARN        (IXTEKIOR    ARRANGEMENT). 


46 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


two  box-stalls  containing  two  calves  each.  Be- 
tween the  cow  stalls  and  the  box-stalls  there  is 
an  alleyway  on  both  sides.  There  is  a  gate 
which  shuts  right  across  the  alleyway  between 
every  four  cows  so  that  four  calves  are  behind 
their  own  four  dams  and  cannot  run  all  over  the 
barn.  They  are  easily  put  back  in  their  own 
stalls  again.  As  before  stated  the  whole  of  the 
barn  has  a  cement  floor  and  outside  in  all  the 
yards  there  is  a  brick  floor  with  regular  pave- 
ment manholes  for  taking  away  the  water  from 
the  eave  troughs  or  around  the  barn.  There  is 
an  entire  system  of  good  sewerage. 


night  in  sitting  up  with  a  cow  that  is  going  to 
calve.  On  each  side  of  the  barn  floor  near  the 
granaries  are  box-stalls.  If  an  animal  is  taken 
sick  it  is  put  into  the  box-stall  next  the  office, 
there  being  a  door  right  into  the  stall  from  the 
office,  and  should  a  weak  calf  come  it  is  taken 
in  beside  the  fire  and  dried. 

A  WESTERN  ILLINOIS  BARN. 

The  plan  and  photograph  shown  in  Figs.  53, 
54  and  55  are  for  a  barn  built  originally  for 
beef  cattle.     There  are  ten  large  double  stalls, 


FIG.     52.       MICHIGAN    BARN     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


On  the  west  side,  the  alleyway  that  comes 
over  the  scales  from  the  west  onto  the  barn 
floor  is  covered  with  a  projecting  roof  half  way 
to  the  barn.  On  each  side  there  is  a  small  yard 
half  Avay  to  the  barn  and  then  an  open  yard. 
All  these  yards  on  the  west  side  are  shedded 
clear  round  with  a  20'  roof  and  troughs  are 
under  each  roof  and  a  hay  rack  above  the 
troughs.  On  the  southwest  there  are  two  open 
yards,  all  shedded  with  a  20'  roof.  That  makes 
four  yards  altogether  on  the  west  side. 

On  the  east  side  there  are  two  yards  shedded 
all  around  near  the  barn  and  farther  east  are 
four  yards  entirely  covered.  In  the  southeast 
yard  there  are  11  good-sized  box-stalls  which  are 
used  for  cows  to  calve  in,  or  for  young  calves 
with  their  dams.  Fig.  50  shows  that  the  whole 
barn  and  yards  are  all  connected.  The  yards 
on  the  west  side  are  120'  east  and  west  and  190' 
north  and  south.  The  yards  on  the  other  side 
are  180'  east  and  west  and  190'  north  and  south. 
The  barn  proper  is  extra. 

The  first  box-stall  to  the  right  of  entry  to  the 
barn  floor  is  the  office.  It  has  a  cement  floor 
and  is  all  lined  with  sheet  steel  and  is  conven- 
ient when  a  man  finds  it  necessary  to  stay  at 


15'  8"  long  and  nine  smaller  double  stalls.  The 
barn  is  64'  long  and  53'  10"  wide.  In  select- 
ing material  for  the  trusses  used  in  this  barn 
it  was  found  best  to  use  both  heavy  and  light 
timbers  so  that  one  might  be  bolted  and  tied 
into  the  other  without  the  use  of  mortise  and 
tendon.  Heavy  bolts  were  used  in  every  case 
except  in  that  of  the  short  braces,  which  were 
mortised  into  the  heavy  timbers  as  usual.    Each 


FIG.  53.       WESTERN  ILLINOIS  BARN    (ELEVATION). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


47 


^„  st  runs  up  and  acts  as  a  direct  support  for  a     posts  coming  down  to  that  level.    This  gives  op- 
purlin.     The  rafters  are  notched  over  the  pur-     portunity  for  plenty  of  light  and  ventilation  in 
lins  and  form  the  upper  part  of  the  truss  and     the  cow  stable,  which  is  very  essential.    By  pen- 
for  supporting  the  hay  rack.     Care  was  taken 
to  have  every  section  of  the  truss  a  perfect  piece 


M       f! 

H     fJ 

LI        U 

^    |j 

aizE 


a:3 


ET 


'Bp 


"O 


^ 


HZIEI 


size: 


F°T 


TU 


n^""=D 


/ 


/ 


r sy-"- .  • 

FIG.    54.       WESTERN  ILLINOIS   BARN    (GROUND  FLOOR). 


in 


m 


FIG.     55.       "WESTERN    ILLINOIS    BARN      (DOOR     DETAIL). 

in  itself,  so  that  whether  the  strain  was  tension 
or  compression  the  size  of  the  timber  was  de- 
signed for  the  special  place  which  it  was  to  fill, 
thus  forming  a  complete  whole  and  a  very  stable 
and  substantial  frame. 

A  SMALL  STOCK  BARN. 

Figs.  56,  57  and  58  illustrate  a  bank  barn  to 
hold  12  milking  cows  and  6  horses. 

The  wall  is  24"  thick  and  but  5'  high,  the 


^ 


HORSES 


S    o 


cows 


32 

FIG.     56.       SMALL     STOCK     BARN     (FRAMEWORK). 

ning  off  the  end  of  the  passage  between  the  cows 
with  a  gate  that  may  swing  back  out  of  the  way 
when  it  is  desired  to  drive  through,  a  box-stall  is 
secured  there,  and  three  such  stalls  are  secured 


31 

_1 
-l 

u 

J_ 

WALK  5' 

BOX  11X6 
7X116" 

r 

TRENCH     12  ' 

s'b" 

STALL 

r 

\ 

PASSAGE  9 

BOX  9X1 

1 

1 

J 

I 

J 

BOX 

/'XH'b" 

_i 

m 

1 

^            WALL    m" 

r 

1^ 

5n 


FIG.    57.       SMALL    STOCK   BARN    (GROUND   FLOOR). 

in  all.  The  manure  spreader  may  be  driven 
right  through  to  clean  out  the  stalls,  or  a  ma- 
nure carrier  be  used,  as  occasion  may  seem  best 


48 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


The  cow  stalls  are  3'  6"  wide,  which  serves 
well  for  dairy  cows,  and  from  5'  to  5'  6"  long 
for  cows  of  varying  length.  The  trench  is  12" 
wide  and  6"  deep.  All  the  floor  should  he  of 
concrete.  There  are  bins  above  in  the  horse 
stable  where  ground  feed  may  be  stored  for  the 
cows  and  drawn  down  by  spouts  into  the  feed 
alleys.     (See  Fig.  57.) 


3.2 


M 

J 

L 

BINS  FOR  CORN 

n 

C 
o 

> 

z 

z 

Zl 

X 

o 
n 

CO 
m 

> 

C/5 

r- 
I— 

m 

"5 

3   7^ 

m 
O 

3 

t: 

-1 

03 

:d 

D 
Q 

m 

n 

aooa 

r 

FIG.    58.       SMALL    STOCK    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR). 

The  height  of  cow  stable  is  8'  in  the  clear ;  of 
horse  stable  the  same.  The  horse  stable  is  turned 
in  a  different  direction  from  the  cow  stable,  so 
that  a  bridge  may  bring  in  the  horses.  One  row 
of  stalls  is  sufficient,  and  the  rest  of  the  space 
given  up  to  bins  and  passages.  The  horse  stalls 
are  5' wide,      {^ee  Fig.  58.) 

BARN  FOR  HORSES  AND  SHEEP. 

Figs.  59  anfl  60  show  a  design  for  a  barn  to 
accommodate  seven  working  horses  in  double 
stalls,  two  mares  in  boxes  and  some  sheep.  It 
is  joint  frame  throughout.    The  size  is  32'  x  56'. 

Horse  stalls  are  8'  wide,  facing  a  feed  alley 
•i'  wide,  which  is  pretty  narrow,  but  will  serve 
where  room  must  be  economized.  The  box-stalls 
are  of  good  size,  10'  x  14',  except  that  the  hay 
chute  is  at  the  bottom,  7'  x  8'   (40"  x  40"  only 


DC 


SHEEP  PEN 

3   14'x   28  ' 


r 


<   3 

r  X 


>°- 


3-- 


5^ 


SINGLE  1 
STALL 


DOUBLE: 


IN- 


STALL : 


5-, 


%-x 


doubleC 

STALL 
8' 


DOUBLE 
STALL 

a' 


^fj_L^DOOR_ 


SHEEP  PEN 

H      14  X   28 


Q 
LU 
LlJ 


T 


BOX 

a'  X  I 't ' 


-C 

O  T 


$K 


DC 

o  ^ 
Q 


BOX 
lo'x  14' 


BOX  ^ 
lo'x  14' 


-1 


5: 


FIGi.     59.       EARN     FOR     HORSES     AND     SHEEP      (GROUND     FLOOR). 


FIG.    60.       BARN    FOR   HORSES   AND   SHEEP    (FRAME). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


49 


in  upper  part),  and  from  this  chute  hay  will 
be  carried  to  the  work  horses.  There  is  one  single 
stall. 

For  the  sheep,  the  feed  alley  may  be  taken 
out  and  all  the  pen  be  thrown  together.  There 
would  be  784  square  feet  of  floor  space  with  the 
alley — too  little  for  100  breeding  ewes. 

BARN  FOR  50  COWS. 

There  is  not  a  great  chance  for  variation  in 
cow  stable  construction  if  the  best  is  aimed  at 
with  economy  of  construction. 

Figs.  61  and  62  show  a  barn  with  a  width  of 
36'.  It  gives  comfort  and  better  opportunity 
for  cleanliness.    Wider  is  a  waste  of  space. 

^luch  experiment  has  see:ned  to  recommend 
that  two  rows  of  cows  should  face  each  other. 
In  this  way  the  feeder  economizes  his  labor 
and  gets  best  results,  for  he  sees  at  a  glance  how 
well  each  cow  is  taking  her  feed  and  if  any- 
thing gees  wrong  he  quickly  knows  it.  We  may 
adopt  the  YanNorman  cow  stall.  Between  the 
mangers  allow  a  passage  5'  wide  aiid  over  it  a 
track  to  convey  the  feed  to  the  cows  from  a  feed 
room  at  one  end  and  from  the  silo  just  outside, 
or  wherever  may  be  most  convenient  to  place  it. 

Three  and  one-half  feet  is  a  good  width  of 
stall  and  that  makes  the  bents  of  14'  come  nice- 


ly into  play,  for  then  four  stalls  go  in  between 
each  set  of  posts.  The  manure  drop  we  will 
niake  24"  wide  and  but  6"  deep;  there  is  then 
little  danger  of  the  Avalk  becoming  soiled  be- 
yond the  drop,  and  the  shallowness  makes  it 
less  uncomfortable  if  a  cow  happens  to  step 
in  it. 

Lights    should    be    as    high    as    they    can    be 


FIG.     62.       BARN     FOR     50     COWS      (CROSS-SECTION). 


ROUND  SILO  18  X  J6 


f — '-ST-' — A — I  '«>■  ' — fi — >-4i^ — h — ^-sV-' — 6- 


I     w.      ' iV 


OUIIER     81Xt 


MANGER  JO  VAN  NORMAN        STAa     J6"W 


TRACK    TO     5IL0 


OVEH     ntAO    tRACB    FOR   fEED  CARRIER 


I  '^""i n i"'"  I      n      , 


n      I  w  f  ^       n      ,  w  fc-  , 6—iHl^ 


jllr 


-eu_v 


FIG.    61.       BARN    FOR    50    COWS     (SIDE    ELEVATION    AND    GROUND    PLAN). 


50 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


placed,  each  sash  hinged  at  its  lower  edge  and 
opening  inwardly  to  permit  a  current  of  air  to 
pass  over  the  cow.  In  this  stable  we  have  com- 
promised somewhat  by  making  about  half  the 
space  window,  putting  in  6'  of  glass  in  each  14' 
space.  The  glass  is  24"  high,  so  that  there  is  a 
ray  of  sunlight  of  12  square  feet  coming  in  to 
each  4  cows.  A  good  plan,  and  not  very  costly, 
is  to  use  a  greenhouse  sash  opener  that  will 
open  or  close  an  entire  row  of  lights  at  one  time 
by  simply  turning  a  wheel  at  one  end.  Or  each 
window  may  have  a  separate  fastening. 

Some  men  have  become  hysterical  over  the 
matter  of  sanitation  and  declared  that  there 
must  be  no  forage  held  over  the  cows  at  all. 
They  fear  that  the  breath  of  the  cows  will  con- 
taminate the  hay  and  spread  disease.  There  is 
little  or  no  basis  for  this  fear.  There  is  not  a 
chance  in  a  million  that  a  cow  will  by  her 
breath  ascending  into  the  hay  carry  disease  to 
another  cow.  Moreover,  the  mow  floor  should 
be  made  so  tight  that  no  exhalations  of  the  stable 
will  ascend  into  it  at  all.  Then  the  entrances 
to  the  hay  chutes  may  have  close-fitting  doors 


held  shut  by  weights  when  not  in  use.  There 
should  be  separate  airshafts  running  up  be- 
tween the  windows,  and  reaching  to  the  peak  of 
the  roof,  where  they  may  discharge  through 
ventilators.  These  airshafts  should  be  large, 
much  larger  than  usually  advised,  and  should 
be  made  of  wood.  Iron  in  a  cold  climate  fills 
solidly  with  frost.  An  airshaft  12"  square  in- 
side is  none  too  large  for  four  cows.  These  air- 
shafts  should  have  openings  at  the  ceiling  level 
that  may  be  closed  in  cold  weather,  when  they 
will  perhaps  take  air  from  the  lower  end.  They 
will  certainly  if  all  else  is  adjusted. 

Now  as  to  the  rest  of  the  stable,  there  must 
be  some  box-stalls ;  we  have  provided  five,  which 
will  not  always  be  enough  for  a  herd  of  50  cows. 
There  must  be  the  feed  room  where  some  grain 
is  stored  and  all  is  mixed;  there  must  be  bins 
above  the  feed  room  whence  spouts  convey  the 
grain  below;  there  must  be  the  great  loft  pro- 
vided with  track  and  sling  carrier,  taking  in  hay 
at  either  end,  and  that  is  all  of  the  absolute 
necessities. 

In  the  stable  we  think  there  should  be  three 


FIG.    63.       AN    IOWA    ROUND   BARN    (ELKVATED). 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS. 


51 


tracks — one  in  the  middle  for  the  feed  and  one 
behind  each  row  of  cows  to  carry  out  the  ma- 
nure. The  carrier  for  manure  must  be  of  good 
iron  and  quite  water-tight,  easily  reversed  to 
clean. 

The  silo  {Fig.  61)  needs  to  hold  at  least  200 


FIG.     64.       AN    IOWA    B.4RN     (GROUND    PLAN). 


tons,  unless  two  are  used,  and  may  be  built 
18x36',  which  will  just  nicely  hold  that 
amount.  It  may  be  placed  where  most  con- 
venient and  is  better  not  to  be  an  integral  part 
of  the  barn.  It  must  be  so  placed  that  the  track 
easily  reaches  it  to  carry  the  silage  to  the  cows. 
The  floor  should  be  all  concrete — alley,  feed 
room  and  all. 

AN  IOWA  ROUND  BARN. 

The  accompanying  photograph  {Fig.  63)  is 
of  a  round  barn  built  recently  in  Iowa.  It  is  70' 
diameter  with  20'  side  walls,  and  is  divided 
rectangularly  as  shown  in  Fig.  64;  the  idea  be- 
ing so  to  arrange  the  posts  that  they  would  be 
in  the  partitions  and  not  in  the  way.  There 
are  four  parallel  cross-beams,  or  joist  bearers, 
the  longest  being  on  the  sides  of  a  12'  drive- 
way running  clear  across  the  barn.  The  mow 
floor  is  8'  above  the  foundation  walls  and  the 
driveway  is  floored  over  high  enough  for  a  load 
of  hay  to  be  driven  in,  except  a  space  of  20' 
in  the  center  where  the  hay  is  taken  up.  After 
a  careful  study  of  the  methods  of  getting  hay 
into  such  barns  the  slack  rope  carrier  was 
adopted. 

The  roof  is  entirely  self-supporting,  there  be- 


80' 


FEED  RACK 


HORSES 
24' ;<  50' 


2  a' 


HIGH  close:  fence 


a: 
o 
o 

Q 


DOOR 


3  ATE 

o 
O 

OPEN  YARD 
FOR  CATTLE 

cc 

DOOR 

1 — -• 

GATE 

— 1            1 

12 


YARD  FOR  HORSES 


FIG.     65.       RAR1]J    FOR    CATTLE    AND    HORSES     (GROUND    PLAN). 


52 


FARM  BUILDIXGS. 


ing  no  posts  or  obstructions  in  the  mow.  The 
first  rafters  are  20',  the  upper  ends  resting 
against  a  40'  hoop  made  of  inch  boards  bent 
around  until  six  thicknesses  are  in  place ;  then 
the  upper  rafters  (18')  start  from  this  hoop  and 
run  to  another  10'  in  diameter,  this  hoop  being 
made  of  2"  lumber  which  sawed  in  a  circle  with 
four  thicknesses,  the  cupola  resting  on  this.  This 
makes  a  barn  as  solid  as  a  rock  and  is  just  the 
thing  for  a  windy  country. 

BARN  FOR  CATTLE  AND  HORSES. 

Fig.  65  shows  a  narrow  barn,  24'  wide,  with 
two  long  wings  making  a  sheltered  L,  one  wing 
being  84'  long,  the  other  80'.  This  can  be  built 
in  16'  sections  or  bents,  and  of  very  simple  and 
cheap  joist  construction,  with  ample  hay-carry- 
ing room  overhead.  We  allow  40  sciuare  feet  for 
each  animal,  supposing  them  to  run  loose,  and 
if  they  are  dehorned  we  have  ample  room  for 
60  head.  The  cattle  have  the  most'  sheltered 
yard,  as  they  need  it  most,  and  the  horses  a 
larger  yard  where  they  can  exercise.  The  horse 
yard  lias  an  added  protection  of  a  high  close- 
built  board  fence. 

One  water  tank  serves  both  and  roof  water 
may  fill  it  much  of  the  year.  Make  the  barn 
so  that  you  can  readily  drive  through  it  and  put 
movable  feed  racks  in  beside  the  permanent  one 
along  the  wall,  into  which  hay  may  be  thrown 
at  any  point. 

These  long  narrow-winged  barns,  sheltering 
the  yard  from  wind  and  storm,  are  by  odds  the 
most  comfortable,  sanitary  and  practicable  stock 
barns,  especially  where  the  desire  is  to  fatten 
the  animals. 

HAY  BARN  WITH  SHEDS. 

Figs.  66  and  67  represent  a  hay  barn  for  al- 
lowing the  hay  to  rest  upon  the  ground  and  with 
sheds  on  each  side. 

Erect  the  sheds  first,  on  each  side  of  the  24' 
space  in  the  center,  then  put  up  the  rafters  in 
the  middle.  The  drawing  shows  the  frame  so 
plainly  that  any  carpenter  can  or  should  erect 
it.  The  whole  is  of  2"x8"  stuff  except  the  plates, 
which  are  2"xl0".  The  purpose  of  the  long 
l^race  in  the  shed,  running  from  near  the  foot  of 
the  short  post,  is  to  carry  the  thrust  of  the  rafters 
down  as  near  to  the  ground  as  possible,  seeing 
that  there  are  no  cross  ties  at  all  in  the  barn. 

The  rafters  are  all  2"x8". 

IMake  blocks  of  concrete  for  foundation  and 
set  in  each  one  a  %"  iron  pin  that  will  project 
throught  a  3"  block  about  10"xlO".     The  ends 


of  the  posts  will  then  toe-nail  with  spikes  nicely 
to  this  block.  There  should  be  an  overhang  to 
shelter  the  door  in  the  end  and  the  track  in  the 


FIG.      66.       HAY      BARN      WITH      SHEDS       (CROSS-SECTION). 


2X10'"   -       16' 


FIG.    67.       HAY  BAIIN  WITH   SHEDS    (DETAIL). 

peak.  Put  in  a  sling  carrier  of  the  strongest 
make.  There  should  be  a  continuous  manger 
along  the  side  and  a  long  chute  above  it  into 
which  hay  may  be  thrown  from  the  mow. 

A  DAKOTA  PLANK  FRAME  BARN. 

The  illustration  in  Figs.  68  and  69  is  the  plan 
of  a  South  Dakota  general-purpose  plank  frame 
liank  barn  36'x72'  with  solid  concrete  basement. 
The  first  story  of  8'  is  of  12'  studding  with 
16'  rafters.  The  first  half  of  the  roof  covers 
10'.  The  purlin  plates  and  posts  are  made  of 
three  2"x6"  used  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
A  driveway  nnis  lengthwise  of  the  first  story, 
and  will  be  used  mainly  for  horses,  a  few  cows 
and  machinery.  The  floor  plan  is  shown  in  the 
drawing,  14'  being  allowed  for  horses,  with  8' 
feedway  between ;  water  is  had  at  a  convenient 
place.  There  is  a  5'  passageway  alongside. 
]Manure  is  dropped  through  trap  doors  into  a 
wagon  in  the  basement  driveway  and  hauled  di- 
rect to  fields.  Granaries  all  have  spouts  into  the 
basement.  Instead  of  a  post  in  the  24'  square 
for  vehicles  a  truss  is  placed  up  in  the  mow, 
which    holds    nearly    100    tons    of    hay.      The 


GENERAL  FARM  BARNS, 


53 


granaries  hold  about  2,500  bushels  of  small 
grain.  There  are  34  25"x26"  single  light  sash 
in  the  first  two  stories  and  four  six-light  sash 


UP 


BOX  STALL 

■    ^  12'xl2' 


J     DOUBLE  STALL 
8«14 


WATER 


8x14 


J        C 


DOORS 


Fig.  70.  The  central  part  is  all  for  hay,  32' 
wide,  36'  deep  to  peak  of  roof,  without  cross 
ties,  and  with  sheds  on  either  side  13'  wide. 
These  sheds  may  be  made  wider,  though  the  de- 
sign is  for  16'  rafters.  If  longer  stuff  is  used 
they  may  have  purlin  plates  in  the  middle,  up- 
held by  braces  from  the  long  posts. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  frame  is  without 
cross  ties.  It  must  be  erected  with  sheds  first 
put  up,  and  shed  rafters  on,  which  will  hold  the 
thrust  of  the  roof.  Then  the  inner  brace  B  will 
be  very  thoroughly  fastened  at  the  upper  ends 
to  the  post,  the  tie  is  firmly  held  at  each  end, 
and  the  foot  of  the  brace  anchored  solidly  to  a 
large  concrete  footing  set  in  the  ground.  This 
Avill  effectually  hold  the  barn  from  spreading 
and  leave  no  obstructing  cross  ties  anywhere. 
The  short  braces  under  B  are  merely  to  hold  any 
weight  of  hay  that  might  come  upon  them. 
Fasten  the  foot  of  each  post  to  its  concrete  base. 
This  barn  may  be  of  any  length,  using  12', 
14'  or  16'  spaces  as  desired,  14'  being  a  good 
distance. 

STABLE  FOR  HORSES,  HOGS  AND  COWS. 


FIG.    68.       DAKOTA    PLANK    FRAME    BARN    (CROSS-SECTION).  JOWUlg 

1     cz 


A  reader  of  The  Gazette  submitted  the  fol- 

D00R12 


GRANARY' 
12'' 12' 


GRANARY 
12'>12' 


FEED 


FEED 


FEED 


^ 


WORK  SHOP 
12h1S' 


24-24. 


BUGGY 
SURREY 

WAGON 

SLED 


-72- 


D00R12' 


FIG.    69.       DAKOTA    PLANK    FRAME    BARN     (FLOOR    PLAN). 


la  the  gal)les.     The  roof  stands  very  rigid  in 
ijoverest  winds  and  will  not  sag  at  the  comb. 

STOCK  BARN  WITH  HAY  IN  MIDDLE. 

The  cross-section  of  the  frame  shows  clearly 
the  manner  of  building  the  barn  illustrated  in 


"I  want  a  stable  for  six  horses — single  stalls, 
two  box-stalls  and  stalls  for  two  cows.  Along 
the  south  side  I  want  pens  for  about  eight  sows, 
or  what  figures  out  conveniently,  with  an  alley- 
way in  which  I  can  throw  hay  at  one  end  to  put 
in  horse  mangers,  horses  facing  this  alleyway. 


54 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


I  would  prossibly  put  a  partition  through  mow  so 
that  over  sows  I  could  put  straw  directly  from 
thresher.  I  would  also  like  carriage  room  for 
one  carriage  and  two  buggies  and  if  convenient 
a  bin  for  oats.  I  would  like  a  cement  or  dirt 
floor  and  mow  room  for  about  15  tons  of  hay." 

The  accompanying  sketch   {Fig.  71)   was  de- 
signed  to   meet    the    requirements.      Only    the 


ground  plan  can  be  given,  leaving  the  structural 
details  to  be  worked  out  by  the  builders.  The 
width  of  32'  should  be  suitable,  as  with  plenty 
of  windows  on  the  sides  it  can  be  made  very 
light  and  airy.  Posts  16'  to  the  square  and 
stable  part  8'  to  under  side  of  joists  will  leave 
a  mow  capable  of  holding  more  than  the  15 
tons;  in  fact,  posts  of  14'  would  serve  all  right. 


FIG.    70.       STOCK   BARN    WITH    HAY    IN    MIDDLE    (CROSS-SECTION). 

3= 


FIG.    71.       STABLE    FOR    HORSES,    CATTLE    AND    SHEEP     (GROUND    PLAN). 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


The  ideal  location  for  the  barn  should  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  center  of  the  farm.  The 
dwelling  of  course  should  be  near.  The  ad- 
vantage of  having  as  many  pastures  and  fields 
directly  connecting  with  the  barns  is  obvious. 
Time,  distance  and  labor  are  saved,  and  over- 
sight at  all  seasons  of  the  stock  made  more 
convenient.  The  character  of  the  site,  however, 
is  of  still  greater  importance,  and  perhaps  there 
is  nothing  worse  than  a  low,  flat,  undrained 
barnyard  and  adjacent  lots.  Strange  to  say, 
however,  nothing  is  more  common. 

If  such  a  location  is  unavoidable,  then  it  will 
pay  to  use  all  the  resources  of  drainage,  tile  and 
stone,  till  even  the  longest  wet  spell  loses  its 
terrors  and  planks  and  rails  no  longer  are  needed 
as  bridges  to  cross  the  depths  and  reach  the 
barn  door.  Wet,  and  not  cold,  is  the  greatest 
enemy  to  thrift  and  flesh,  and  the  floors  of  all 
sheds  and  pens  should  be  high,  dry  and  well 
drained.  The  importance  of  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  well  fenced,  conveniently  arranged  lots 
of  sizes  from  a  hundred  or  so  square  feet  up  to 
an  acre  or  two  should  not  be  overlooked.  There 
are  never  too  many.  There  is  an  inflnite  variety 
of  wants  met  by  an  infinite  variety  of  circum- 
stances, mental  peculiarities  and  financial  con- 
ditions, resulting  in  a  corresponding  variety  of 
farm  buildings. 

Good  air,  good  light  and  dryness  are  foremost 
in  importance;  they  go  together.  One  of  these 
qualities  lacking,  the  others  are  almost  sure  to 
be  absent.  The  dark,  cavernous  recesses  of  very 
large  barns  are  seldom  ventilated  or  dry.  The 
heavy  foundations  imply  a  basement  dark,  damp 
and  malodorous.  The  great  roof  and  floors  mean 
heavy  timbers,  much  skilled  labor  and  expense, 
and  last  but  not  least  is  the  chance  that  some 
winter  night  the  structure  vanishes  by  fire.  More 
desirable  are  two  or  more  smaller  buildings,  all 
above  ground,  on  light  foundations,  light  tim- 
bers with  but  little  framing  and  far  enough 
apart  for  some  degree  of  safety  from  fire  and  a 
chance  to  save  life.  There  should  be  doors  on 
every  side  and  ample  windows.  Nothing  is  so 
cheap  as  sunlight  and  yet  nothing  is  so  scarce 
in  the  average  barn  or  stable.  Another  great 
advantage  of  somewhat  scattered  and  smaller 
buildings  is  the  possibility  of  dividing  up  the 
stock  and  obtaining  direct  access  from  different 
lots  and  pastures  for  different  classes  of  stock. 


It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  in  the  middle  of  the 
night,  in  a  large  barn,  100  cattle  aroused  and 
disturbed  by  one  uneasy  heifer  or  lost  calf. 

Plank  flooring  is  to  be  avoided  if  possible. 
It  is  unsanitary.  Broken  stone  (8")  with  here 
and  there  a  3"  tile  running  to  the  outside,  with 
6"  of  porous,  yellow  clay  on  top,  wetted  and 
tamped,  hardening  like  a  brick,  will  always  be 
dry,  never  slippery,  needs  only  here  and  there 
after  the  winter  is  over  a  little  fresh  clay  and 
affords  no  harbor  for  rats.  Many  breeders  prefer 
cement  floors,  which  are  in  common  use.  Have 
no  narrow,  contracted  passageways  in  which  the 
larger  cattle  will  crowd  and  jam  together.  A 
favorite  arrangement  seems  to  be  a  narrow  feed- 
ing alley,  two  rows  of  cattle,  heads  in,  and  two 
narrow  passageways  behind  the  cattle.  This  is 
a  misuse  of  space,  more  expensive  and  no  more 
convenient.  Far  better  have  one  wide  space, 
not  less  than  10',  which  is  less  than  the  3'  in 
the  center,  in  which  the  cattle  have  ample  room 
quietly  to  walk  to  their  stalls,  where  they  stand 
heads  to  the  wall.  A  hand-cart  may  be  used 
to  distribute  the  feed  (before  the  cattle  come  in 
at  night)  and  every  animal  always  has  the  same 
stall.  A  noted  cattle  breeder  is  quoted  as  say- 
ing that  time  and  again  he  has  seen  70  head  of 
cows  walk  into  such  a  stable  from  three  en- 
trances and  be  tied  up  by  two  men  and  munch- 
ing their  feed  in  20  minutes,  with  neither  noise, 
hurry  nor  confusion. 

Every  barn  should  have  a  mow  sufficient  at 
least  to  supply  its  inmates  with  the  winter 's  hay, 
bins  for  bran  and  prepared  feed,  but  it  is  the 
opinion  of  many  farmers  that  the  corncribs 
should  be  separate  and  distinct  structures. 

In  latitudes  where  the  mercury  only  now  and 
then  falls  below  zero  animals  suffer  more  from 
the  barn  being  too  warm  and  close  than  from 
cold.  In  fact,  but  for  the  difficulty  of  properly 
apportioning  feed,  so  far  as  health  is  concerned, 
a  good,  deep  shed,  say  20'  from  front  to  rear, 
with  a  hay-rack  and  plenty  of  bedding,  is  better 
than  a  barn ;  the  air  is  pure ;  there  are  no 
draughts  and  no  over-heating  and  no  chilling. 
Health  and  vitality  are  in  direct  proportion  to 
pure  air,  and  well  bedded  is  half  fed. 

No  matter  how  perfect  the  barn  may  be  noth- 
ing can  take  the  place  of  abundant  bedding,  and 
convenience  in  getting  it  in  and  getting  it  out 
(in  the  shape  of  manure)  easily  and  rapidly  is 


55 


56 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


a  tiling  indispenasable.  As  a  rule  the  manure 
should  go  direct  from  the  stalls  to  the  pastures 
and  cornfields.  As  long  as  small  grains  will 
pay  the  cost  of  production  the  straw  is  a  suf- 
ficient profit  to  justify  the  stockraiser  in  grow- 
ing it.  Sawdust  and  even  dry  leaves  are  useful 
if  straw  is  lacking.  Water  in  the  barn  is  not 
always  a  success.  A  large  central  tank  supply- 
ing drinking  troughs  in  every  lot,  filled  with 
covers  to  be  closed  at  night  in  the  winter,  seems 
to  serve  every  purpose,  and  it  is  a  rare  day  when 
all  kinds  of  stock  should  not  be  turned  out  for  a 
few  hours  at  least.  Thirsty  cattle  coming  sud- 
denly out  of  an  overheated  barn  may  be  hurt  by 
drinking  ice  water,  but  the  cold  air  has  the  same 
effect  where  the  barn  is  warm.  Tank  heaters 
are  in  common  use  in  cold  latitudes  to  take  the 
chill  off  the  water. 

In  the  case  of  heavy  doors  nothing  but  the 
best  of  rollers  should  be  used,  the  track  of  iron, 
put  up  as  true  and  solid  as  it  is  possible  to 
have  it,  and  then  watch  and  keep  clean  the 
groove  in  which  it  runs  to  the  bottom.  Box- 
stalls  should  be  built  wherever  a  roof  can  be  ex- 
tended along  the  sides  without  cutting  off  the 
light  and  air  from  the  main  building.  A  long 
shed  closed  in  front  and  divided  into  box-stalls, 
on  the  north  side  of  a  lot,  is  of  great  utility. 
One  or  tAvo  extra  warm  ones  should  always  be 
provided  a  little  to  one  side  for  winter-night 
calving,  sick  animals  and  the  like. 

]\Iany  patent  fastenings  have  been  suggested 
and  advertised,  but  after  all  nothing  in  practice 
has  been  found  more  convenient,  more  speedy 
or  more  safe  than  the  old-fashioned  German 
chain  cattle  tie  with  about  a  foot  play  on  a 
vertical  yJ'  iron  rod  under  the  edge  of  the  man- 
ger. The  cattle  have  perfect  freedom  up  and 
down  and  can  reach  to  the  center  of  the  manger 
of  an  8'  or  9'  double  stall.  When  taken  off  the 
cattle  the  end  ring  should  be  hooked  over  a  nail 
in  the  side  of  the  stall  just  above  the  animal's 
neck,  where  it  is  just  in  place  for  use  at  night. 

A  KANSAS  CATTLE  BAEN. 

The  diagram.  Figs.  72  and  73,  as  will  be  seen, 
fully  carries  out  the  idea  that  an  expensive, 
elaborate  barn  is  not  a  necessary  adjunct  to  suc- 
cessful cattle  breeding  in  the  western  states, 
but  that  reasonable  shelter  for  the  herd  from 
the  rigors  of  winter  and  some  little  outlay 
for  the  protection  of  the  hay  is  in  keeping  with 
the  best  principles  of  economy.  This  barn  was 
built  by  W.  A.  Harris  on  his  farm  in  Leaven- 
worth Co.,  Kansas.  This  unpretentious  yet  ad- 
miralily  arranged  building  was  built  many  years 


ago  and  has  given  the  best  of  satisfaction.  The 
materials  used  in  its  construction  were  as  fol- 
lows: 32  telegraph  poles,  20'  long;  32  tele- 
graph poles,  25'  long;  6,000'  of  boards,  16' 
long;  30,000  shingles;  400  battens,  3"xi/,",  16' 
long;    34    sash,    4    lights,    10"xl2" ;    4,500'    of 


FRONT      CLCVATION 


FIG,     72.      KANSAS    CATTLE    BARN     (GROUND    PLAN). 


I      asna  ^«i,  cuntd         ^s,    %     4>^/      outtep        ^/  cutteii        T 

ETTTtTTlllfcTTrnijf 

FIG.     73.       KANSAS     CATTLE     BARN      (GROUND     PLAN). 

flooring;  200  joists,  2"x8",  16'  long;  2.500'  of 
rough  boards;  250  pieces,  2"x4",  16'  long; 
1^400  of  masonry  in  underpinning. 

Points  in  favor  of  this  cattle  barn  are  cheap- 
ness, light,  ventilation  and  ample  room.  The 
wide  alleyway  permits  the  ready  and  uncrowded 
passage  of  cattle,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
stalls.  Wagons  go  through  and  take  up  the 
manure,  which  goes  direct  to  the  fields.  Bed- 
ding is  distributed  in  the  same  way,  and  hay 
from  the  outside  is  distributed  in  this  way,  hold- 
ing in  reserve  that  in  the  mow.  The  dirt  floor 
is  cheap  and  never  slippery.  The  holes  which 
wear  are  readily  fdled  by  a  load  or  two  of  dry 
earth  which  is  at  once  an  absorbent  and  deodor- 
izer. All  the  windows  open  on  one  side  or  the 
other  (to  the  leeward)  and  obviate  'Svheezing" 
or  "coughing."  It  was  built  by  two  carpenters 
and  four  laborers  in  30  days  and  cost  about  $1,- 
100.  The  mow  holds  nearly  140  tons  of  hay  by 
filling  up  after  the  first  has  settled. 

THE  MORGAN  COW  BARN. 

The  barn  shown  in  Figs.  74  and  75  is  T- 
shaped,  412'  across  the  front  and  extending  back 
280'.  It  was  recently  built  by  F.  W.  INIorgan 
on  his  Rock  Co.,  Wis.,  farm.  The  entire  barn 
covers  about  three-quarters  of  an  acre.  There 
are  two  silos  in  connection  with  the  barn,  the 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


57 


FIG.     74.        MORGAN    COW    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


forward  one  being  25'  inside  diameter  with  18' 
walls  and  40'  high  with  8'  in  ground.  The 
other  silo  is  30'  inside  diameter  and  40'  high. 


°u 


Both  are  constructed  of  grout,  a  mixture  of  four 
parts  ordinary  gravel,  two  parts  sand  and  one 
part  Portland  cement.  These  silos  have  given 
good  satisfaction.  The  entire  floor  of  the  barn 
is  also  made  of  grout.  A  patent  roofing  is  used 
in  covering  both  the  sides  and  roof.  This  is 
composed  of  layers  of  felt,  burlap  and  felt,  the 
three  coats  being  cemented  together  with 
asphalt.  The  sides  are  battened.  The  frame 
is  composed  of  2"xl0",  6"x6"  and  2"x6"  planks 
and  is  of  ordinary  construction.  In  the  center 
of  the  barn  is  an  open  space  in  which  is  a  weigh- 
ing scale  and  from  which  silage  can  be  loaded 
and  carried  to  feed  troughs  under  cover.  The 
maternity  stable  has  double  rows  of  posts  equi- 
distant apart  with  grooved  sides  into  which  por- 
table gates  can  be  placed,  thereby  forming  sep- 
arate stalls  28'  square  for  each  cow  and  calf. 
There  are  eight  bull  stalls  16'x25',  each  one 
with  separate  door  into  yard. 


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FIG.     75.       MORGAN     COW     BARN      (GROUND     FLOCR)  . 


AN  IOWA  CATTLE  BARN. 

The  barn  shown  in  Fig.  76  is  48'x68'.  It 
was  built  in  1893  as  a  hay,  stock  and  feed  barn, 
with  the  hay  part  in  the  center  24'x48',  witli 
a  14'  stock  driveway  on  each  -side  and  corncribs 
8'x48'  on  each  side  of  stockway,  with  trouglis 
in  the  stockway  next  to  crib  and  oat-bin  over 
each  stockway,  with  chutes  leading  to  troughs 
below.  As  thus  arranged  the  barn  holds  3,000 
bushels  of  corn,  1,500  bushels  of  oats  and  65 
tons  of  hay,  with  feeding  room  for  40  head  of 
cattle. 

In  order  to  increase  the  stock  room  and  re- 
duce the  hay  compartment  the  center  part  was 
changed  into  a  cattle-barn,  providing  room  for 
20  cattle  in  stalls,  with  the  same  stock  room 


58 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


outside  of  this  as  before.  A  feed-bin  8'x6'x48' 
was  built,  with  a  chute  to  stalls  below.  There 
is  room  for  60  cattle  (20  stalled),  3,000  bush- 
els of  ear  corn,  1,500  bushels  of  oats,  1,000  bush- 
els of  shelled  corn  or  ground  feed  and  about 
40  tons  of  hay.  The  frame  is  white  oak  poles 
set  in  ground  every  8'  except  at  cribs,  where 
they  are  4'  apart,  with  additional  foundations 
set  one  stone  under  each  crib. 


frame,  the  girders,  posts  and  some  other  mem- 
bers being  built  up. 

This  makes  a  much  stronger  job  and  saves 
time  in  the  framing.  The  rear  45'  of  the  first 
fioor  is  used  as  the  main  mow.  The  bents 
which  form  the  frame  in  this  part  of  the  barn 
are  so  constructed  that  no  cross-tie  beams  are 
required.  This  arrangement  requires  less  labor 
and  material  and  makes  a  stronger  construction. 


_ 

V 


l_  1 

_  JJ  _____ 


CROUNO    PLAN   or  CATTLE    BARN  4>Xta 


FIG.    76.       AN    IOWA    CATTLE    BARN     (FLOOR    PLAN    AND    ELEVATION.) 


A  HAWKEYE  CATTLE  BARN. 

The  cattle  barn  shown  in  Figs.  77,  78,  79  and 
80  was  built  for  C.  S.  Barclay,  of  Muscatine 
County,  Iowa.  The  capacity  of  the  barn  figures 
as  follows:  Hay,  240  tons;  grain,  9,000  bush- 
els; cattle,  100  head;  horses,  10  head.  The 
frame  is  balloon  construction  and  all  of  native 
hardwood,  the  lumber  being  sawed  on  Mr.  Bar- 
clay's farm.  With  the  exception  of  the  4"xl2' 
sill   there   is   nothing   thicker   than   2"   in    the 


besides  doing  away  with  the  objectionable  tie- 
beams.  The  frame  is  all  securely  bolted  to- 
gether. 

A  dump  elevator  and  grinding  machinery  are 
so  installed  as  to  save  much  labor.  (See  Fig. 
80.)  The  power  required  to  run  the  machinery 
is  furnished  by  a  12-horsepower  portable  gaso- 


g: 


LCrr  SIDC  ELEVATION. 


FRONT  ELeVATIOI>8. 


FIG.     77.      HAWKEYE    CATTLE    BARN. 


FIG.        78.      HAWKEYE    CATTLE    BARN. 

line  engine.  Chutes  are  so  arranged  that  all 
kinds  of  feed  are  accessible  in  the  feed  room 
without  handling.  A  water  supply  is  also  in- 
stalled. 

The  floor  in  the  driveway  of  the  basement  and 
also  in  part  of  the  stalls  is  of  paving  brick  laid 


CATTLE  BARN8. 


59 


BASCMeNT    PLAN. 

FIG.     79.      HAWKEYE    CATTLE    BARN. 

on  a  bed  of  sand,  the  cracks  between  the  bricks 
being  washed  full  of  thin  cement.  The  remain- 
der of  the  floor  in  the  basement  is  of  concrete. 
The  floor  for  the  horse  stable,  which  is  on  the 
first  floor,  is  of  concrete. 

Behind  the  stalls  the  concrete  is  covered  with 
2"  flooring.  The  stalls  are  provided  with  hard- 
wood gratings,  which  can  be  removed  for  clean- 
ing. The  cattle  mangers  and  feed-racks  are  a 
new  departure.  The  barn  cost  about  $6,000  when 
it  was  built  a  few  years  ago. 

ANOTHER  KANSAS  CATTLE  BARN. 

This  barn  is  built  of  joist  construction,  no 
piece  being  more  than  2"  thick.  It  has  ample 
storage  for  all  the  cattle  that  can  get  beneath 
the  roof  and  is  so  constructed  that  winds  have 
little  effect  upon  it,  the  low  roof  deflecting  them 
harmlessly  upward. 

The  dimensions  are  60-xll2'.  It  is  so  de- 
signed, however,  that  the  length  may  at  any 
time  be  increased  by  adding  more  bents.  The 
principle  of  construction  is  clearly  shown  in 
Fig.  81,  an  end  elevation  showing  a  doorway 
framed  to  take  in  hay  from  the  outside.  This 
feature  is  not  in  the  barn  as  built. 


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FIRST   FLOOR    PLAN 
FIG.     80.       HAWKEYE     CATTLE     BARN. 

This  barn  has  the  open-center  which  admits 
of  hay  being  unloaded  by  slings  and  carriers 
that  do  not  raise  the  hay  higher  than  just 
enough  to  clear  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  mow 
])efore  they  swing  back. 

The  interior  arrangement  as  adapted  to  the 
feeding  of  young  beef  cattle  also  is  shown  in 
Fig.  81.  The  exterior  is  nicely  presented  in  the 
diagram. 

This  barn  has  been  extensively  copied.  It  is 
unique  in  that  it  dispenses  with  siding  except  at 
the  ends,  and  for  strength,  cheapness  and  gen- 
eral desirability  it  has  hardly  a  rival  in  the  class 
of  large  barns. 

AN  INDIANA  CATTLE  BARN. 

One  of  the  largest  and  best  cattle  barns  in 
the  country  is  that  erected  by  F.  A.  Nave,  of 
Fountain  County,  Ind.,  for  his  Fairview  Here- 
ford herd.  Its  construction  is  clearly  shown  in 
the  diagrams  from  the  architect's  plans.  The 
dimensions  are  120'  long,  64'  wide  and  18'  to 
the  eaves.  It  runs  east  and  west  and  is  set  into 
a  bank  that  affords  driveways  from  the  level 
onto  the  upper  floor  at  the  east  end  and  the 


60 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


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CATTLE  BARNS. 


61 


northwest  corner,  A  heavy  stone  wall  runs  along 
the  entire  east  and  north  sides,  but  the  ground 
falls  away  sufficiently  on  the  north  to  allow  of 
ample  window  space.  Doors  open  at  fre(iuent 
intervals  on  the  south  side  into  good-sized  and 
well  drained  paddocks,  and  the  fall  is  equally 
good  on  the  west.  Fig.  82  shows  the  rear  (west) 
elevation,  and  also  the  engine-house  and  water 
tank.  A  large  gasoline  engine  pumps  water  and 
runs  corn-sheller,  grinder,  fodder-shredder  and 
hay-cutter  on  the  upper  floor.  While  possibly  a 
little  power  may  be  lost  in  transmission,  yet  the 
engine  is  adequate,  and  this  small  loss  is  more 
than  compensated  for  by  the  protection  from 


fire  in  this  detached  engine-house.  The  well  is 
equipped  with  a  6"  pipe  and  the  supply  is  fairly 
inexhaustible.  Hot  and  cold  water  is  on  tap  in 
the  barn.  Tlie  entrance  to  the  huge  upper  floor 
for  hay  and  corn-fodder  is  at  the  corner  nearest 
the  engine-house. 

The  side  of  the  framework  is  shown  in  Fig. 
83.  The  posts  are  all  set  on  stone  foundations. 
Fig.  84  gives  an  idea  of  the  framing  of  the  barn, 
showing  an  end  and  an  inside  bent.  The  ends 
are  strongly  framed  and  a  very  large  inside 
space  is  clear.  The  ground  plan  is  indicated  in 
Fig.  85,  which  sliows  the  arrangement  of  the 
stalls.     A  row  of  large  boxes  runs  through  the 


FIG.    82.       AN    INDIANA    CATTLE    BARN     (REAR    ELEVATION) 


FIG.     83.        AN     INDIANA    CATTLE    BARN      (FRAMEWORK). 


FIG.    84.       AN    INDIANA    CATTLE   BARN     (CROSS-SECTIONS    AND    FOUNDATIONS). 


62 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


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FIG.     85.        AN     INDIANA    CATTLE     BARN     (GROUND     FLOOR). 


center  and  the  middle  partitions  through  the 
entire  row  are  movable,  so  that  two  boxes  may 
be  thrown  into  one.  On  either  side  the  cows 
with  calves  may  be  tied,  two  to  a  stall,  although 
each  stall  will  comfortably  accommodate  three 
cows.     The  convenience  of  the  calf  pens  needs 


no  explanation.  This  barn  is  very  substantially 
built  but  without  extravagance.  It  was  designed 
throughout  by  ]\Ir.  Nave  as  the  most  convenient 
plan  that  he  could  figure  out  for  the  economical 
care  of  a  large  herd.  It  will  easily  accommo- 
date 150  head  of  cattle,  and  200  head  may  be 


FIG.     86.       A    HOOSIER    CATTLE    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


63 


FEED     TROUC.H             ON 

STONE       WALL                                                      1 

S 

BULL  CALF  5TADLE 

15  X  20  n 

DULL  PADDOCK 

15  X  20  Fi 

n 

FEED 

RACK 

BOOR 

St; 

WIDE 

DOOR 


FEEO     TROU&H  ON    WALL 


i'OK   LOOOE.    5T0CK 
ISX  38 


FEED       RACK 


5"^'     WIDE 


FOR    LOOiE      5T0cn 
13  l-u  X  78    FI 


FOR    LOOSE    5T0CK 
;3  ''^  X  76   Fi 


CALF    STABLE 


HEIFER     BAf?N 


COW  5TA5LE       6  COWS 


iG  n 

2H  F 

T 

FEEO    WAY 

..J 

J     DOUBLE 
^  6ULL  STALL 

DOUBLE 
BULL  5T/1LL 

FEEO 

BOX 

3V»6f: 

A  BULL    STALLS 

FEFO   WAY 


^0   FI 


OOOR    8  F'' 


■^^  BULL     STALLS 
30   FT 


BULL  _ 

PADDOCM     -n 


5G   fl 

FIG.     &?.       A    HOOSIER    CATTLE    BARN     (BASEMENT    PLAN). 


comfortably  housed  without  crowding.  The 
second  story  will  hold  all  the  provender  and  for- 
age needed  for  a  large  herd,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  necessity  of  hay  barns  and  fodder 
stacks.  In  the  west  end  the  mill  rooms  are 
located,  and  the  prepared  feed  drops  below  to 
the  mixing  floor. 

A  HOOSIER  CATTLE  BARN. 

Figs.  86  and  87  show  the  ground  plan,  inte- 
rior arrangement  and  elevation  of  one  of  the 
large  cattle  barns  on  the  farm  of  J.  H.  Miller, 
of  ]\Iiami  County,  Ind.  The  arrangement  of 
this  barn  is  very  convenient,  and  while  it  is  large 
and  roomy  it  has  not  cost  an  extravagant  amount 
of  money.  The  advantage  of  the  arrangement 
of  the  different  stalls  and  paddocks  will  be  read- 
ily perceived,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  a  wide 
driveway  extends  through  the  barn  from  north 
to  south,  so  that  the  stalls  can  all  be  conven- 
iently cleaned  and  the  manure  hauled  away 
readily  without  much  extra  labor. 

The  feed-bins  are  on  the  second  floor  with 
chutes  to  the  basement.  There  is  a  traveling 
feed-box  of  about  ten-bushel  capacity  swung  to 


a  steel  hay  track  above  the  feedway,  running 
the  whole  length  of  the  barn,  78'.  Above  the 
basement  is  a  large  hay  mow  and  rooms  for  feed 
and  machinery.  The  basement  itself  is  8'  high, 
the  posts  are  12"xl2" ;  joists,  2"xl2" ;  braces, 
4"x4";  rafters,  2"x4"  and  the  barn  cost  about 
$2,500. 

AN  OCTAGONAL  CATTLE  BARN. 

An  octagonal  barn  that  will  accommodate 
about  50  head  of  cattle  is  shown  in  Figs.  88  and 
89. 

The  octagonal  form  has  alwaj'S  seemed  open 
to  the  objection  of  being  hard  to  fill  with  hay 
and  more  difficult  to  arrange  in  the  interior. 
However,  it  may  be  that  the  great  amount  of 
space  secured  at  the  cost  of  a  much  less  amount 
than  in  the  square  form  more  than  balances  the 
objection.  This  octagonal  barn  of  25'  on  a  side 
has  in  it  about  800  square  feet  more  space  than 
the  same  amount  of  wall  in  a  square  form.  That 
is  equal  to  gaining  a  barn  20x4:0'.  However, 
the  main  objection,  that  of  filling  the  barn,  re- 
mains to  be  attacked.  This  may  largely  be 
overcome  by  erecting  a  gable  on  one  of  the  sides 


64 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


of  the  roof  and  running  a  track  in  from  that 
height  which  may  be  carried  across  to  within 
20'  of  the  opposite  side,  and  that  will  serve  very 
well  to  distribute  the  hay. 

The  walls  should  be  made  24'  high,  the  base- 
ment 8'  to  10',  the  roof  will  rise  20'  and  the 
little  turret  in  the  peak  will  be  about  48'  above 
the  foundation.     The  roof  is  self-supporting,  the 


FIG.      S8.       AN     OCTAGONAL     CATTLE     BARN      (ELEVATION). 


FIG.    89.     AN   OCTAGONAL  CATTLE  BARN    (GROUND   PLAN). 

plates  being  bolted  together  at  the  corners  and 
held  by  a  band  of  iron  4'  long  bent  to  fit  and 
solidly  bolted  so  that  the  corners  can  never 
spread.  The  plates  are  of  2"xl2",  two  parts. 
All  parts  are  of  joist  construction. 

The  ])asement  plan  shows  stalls  for  approxi- 
mately 60  cattle ;  the  larger  cattle  would  be  in 
the  outer  circle,  the  smaller  ones  in  the  inner  row. 
One  feeding  alley  serves  for  the  two  lows  and  a 
circular  track  brings  in  grain  or  silage  and  an- 


other circular  track  and  conveyor  takes  away  the 
manure.  Above  the  passage  and  just  within  the 
outer  door  there  will  be  chutes  from  above,  down 
which  will  come  hay,  bran  and  other  feed,  the 
granaries  being  located  there  and  filled  from  the 
same  door  that  takes  in  hay.  There  would  be 
other  hay  chutes  leading  down  to  the  floor. 

Abundant  light  and  air  are  let  in  to  the  base- 
ment by  a  practically  continuous  window  3'  high 
and  3'  above  the  ground.  The  sashes  of  this 
window  hinge  at  the  bottom  edge  and  incline 
inward,  each  one  being  opened  all  at  one  motion 


FIG.     90.       A     CORNBELT     BARN      (END     SECTION). 


aoxsmt- 

CO/*- 


ffTl 


(firt    ^m 


»/iy  0/ir  /fiOAf  g/fouA/a  ro  /foof  20  srsa ' 


B0X6rMl 


Aii£y 


J' 


CSLF 


ff£0 


M/)l\IG£  /^ 


oAo  \sTVz^  J^A^A/ci/zi/^b 


fiTt 


yv/riLS  B£f/'A/o  c/frrj-E 


FIG.     91.       A     CORNBELT    BARN      (GROUND     PLAN). 

or  closed  by  a  motion,  the  mechanism  being  the 
familiar  contrivance  employed  in  greenhouse 
construction.  The  outer  walk  is  4'  wide  at  its 
narrowest  point.  Perhaps  3'  would  be  better, 
as  it  would  give  more  room  between  the  cattle, 
and  with  the  manure  conveyors  there  is  not  the 
need  of  wide  passages  that  there  once  was.  Ce- 
ment floor  throughout  and  Van  Norman  stalls 
complete  the  basement  construction. 

A  CORNBELT  BARN. 

The  Illinois  cattle  barn  illustrated  in  Figs.  90 
and  91  has  an  immense  storage  capacity  afforded 
for  hay  and  straw,  and  in  view  of  the  vast  (juan- 
tity  of  forage  of  that  description  wasted  ainuial- 
ly  from  lack  of  protection  from  the  inclement 
weather  the  question  arises  as  to  whether  or  not 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


65 


more  attention  should  be  given  to  that  subject 
in  the  construction  of  barns. 

The  plan  indicates  a  barn  50'  x  70',  with  cattle 
stalls  and  a  3'  alley  on  each  side,  central  space 
and  entire  area  above  the  stalls  being  devoted 
to  the  mowing  of  hay  and  straw.  The  "end 
section"  {Fig.  90)  is  intended  to  show  this  ar- 
rangement. 

There  are  doors  at  the  rear  end  of  the  barn 
the  same  as  in  front,  and  over  the  main  doors  in 
the  rear  are  two  smaller  doors  wide  enough  to 
admit  the  straw-carrier  of  a  threshing  machine, 
so  that  when  threshing  the  machine  dumps  the 
straw  into  the  loft  of  the  barn  over  the  stack  on 
either  or  both  sides  by  moving  the  machine. 
There  is  also  a  large  door  lO'xO'  for  taking  hay 
from  the  load  by  the  horse  hay  forks  on  a  track 
running  the  entire  length  of  the  comb  of  the 
barn,  hauled  up  by  horse  at  the  other  end  of 
the  barn. 

Material  of  the  following  description  is  used: 
Sills,  6"x8" ;  joists,  2"x8" ;  corner  posts, 
6"x6";  other  posts,  4"x6";  braces,  4"x4"; 
girts,  2"x4" ;  plates,  4"x6" ;  rafters,  2"x4" ; 
sheeting,  second  fencing ;  shingles,  18",  best ; 
siding,  12'  stock  boards;  flooring,  2"x8". 

MODERN  TYPE  OF  CATTLE  BARN. 


exercise  any  day  in  severe  w^eather.  Fig.  93 
shows  the  ground  floor.  The  specifications  pro- 
vide this  barn  with  manure-carriers  behind  the 
cattle,  feed  carriers  with  track  in  front  of  them 
and  numerous  window^s  to  admit  light  and  air. 
The  windows  are  hinged  at  the  lower  edge  and 
open  inwardly  with  greenhouse  construction,  so 


IBOfS 


♦  30if 

FIG.     93.       MODEKN     TYPE     OF    CATTLE     BARN     (GROUND    PLAN). 


A  sanitary,  comfortable  and  commodious  barn  that  a  turn  of  a  wheel  opens  a  row  of  them, 

recently  built  by  H.  H.  Trimble,  Davis  County,  Sectional  hay  chutes  extend  down  into  the  feed 

la.     It  has  84  single  stalls  and  10  box-stalls  or  alleys.     The  barn  has  cement  floors  and  Van 

breeding  pens.    There  are  bins  for  grain  and  stor-  Norman  stalls.     This  barn  has  proved  very  sat- 


FIG.     92.        MODERN    TYPE    OF    CATTLE    BARN     (ELEVATION     AND    CROSS-SECTION). 


age  for  350  tons  of  forage  above.  Silos  may  be 
conveniently  added,  one  at  the  end  of  each  wing, 
where  the  feed-carrier  will  convey  the  silage 
down  the  central  allev  between  the  rows  of  cat- 
tle. 

The  barn  is  30'  wide  and  forms  three  sides 
of  an  open  court  {Fig.  92),  which  is  66'x78', 
designed  to  be  paved  witli  vitrified  brick  or  con- 
creted, having  a  water  tank  in  center,  thus  form- 
ing a  convenient  sheltered  yard  where  cattle  may 


isfactory  to  the  proprietor,  who  says  that  "we 
l)elieve  we  have  saved  $1,000  of  its  cost  in  one 
season  in  grain  and  liny  and  in  preventing  loss 
of  flesh  in  the  animals. ' ' 

A  BARN  FOR  BREEDING  CATTLE. 

The  cattle  barn  on  the  Willow  Lawn  farm  of 
E.  Reynolds  &  Son,  of  Whiteside  County,  111.^ 
is   56'xl24'.      It   is   22'   to   the   eaves   and   48' 


66 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     94.       BARN     FOR    BREEDING    CATTLE     (ELEVATION). 


to  the  peak,  giving  ample  pitch  to  the  roof. 
This  barn  will  hold  about  300  tons  of  hay  and 
there  is  a  place  directly  over  the  meal  bin  for 
two  carloads  of  bran  or  feed.  One  floor  of  the 
barn  is  cement,  having  a  slope  of  5"  from  where 
the  cows  are  chained  in  the  box-stalls.  The 
stalls  also  slope  2"  from  outside  the  barn  to  the 
drain  behind  the  cows.  The  drain  slopes  grad- 
ually from  both  ends  toward  the  center,  where 
there  is  a  till  to  receive  the  liquid.  There  are 
six  large  ventilators  running  from  the  bottom 
of  the  barn  up  to  the  cupolas.  There  are  24 
windows  below  and  several  opening  into  the  loft. 
(See  Figs.  94  and  95.)  The  barn  cost  about 
$4,000  a  few  years  ago. 


2J 


< 


I^^^Aon^ 


4^ 


CO 

-^ 

o 

C/1 

H 
n 

C3 

Oo 

-r-[ 

fv3    r-n 

"2: 

< 

m 

T/LE 


-ALLEY 


-CD 

^2 

CX3 

> 

Z 

Co 

V 

1 — 

C50 

m 

-< 

F5  ro 


FIG.  95.   BARN  FOR  BREEDING  CATTLE  (GROUND  PLAN). 


Shingle  Roof 


: i   i J    '*&K,  1....J  [ ;   L ;    [ ;   L ;    L...J    I J 

FIG.     96.       ILLINOIS     CATTLE    BARN      (SIDE     ELEVATION).  ' 


iStCTION  SHOWING  rRAMINQ 
-or  (NTERIOR  BAYS 


iscaioN  SHOWING  rR/iiiiN(5 
OF  q«BLr  CNOs 


FIG.    97.      ILLINOIS    CATTLE    BARN     (END    SECTION). 

ILLINOIS  CATTLE  BARN. 

Hon.  Frank  0.  Lowden's  large  cattle  barn  on 
his  farm  in  Ogle  Co.,  111.,  is  one  of  the  most 
complete  and  conveniently  arranged  buildings  to 
be  found.  There  is  a  perfect  system  of  water- 
works and  sewerage  in  the  barns  and  yards  and 
there  are  water  troughs  in  every  yard  that  drain 
directly  into  the  sewer,  so  that  when  not  in  use 
they  can  be  drained,  thereby  obviating  the  dant 
ger  of  freezing  and  insuring  water  of  even  tem- 
perature at  all  times. 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


67 


The  dimensions  of  this  barn  are  71'  8"xl21' 
10".  The  diagrams  shown  in  Figs.  96,  97  and 
98  present  a  clear  idea  of  its  arrangement. 

Feed  is  conveyed  by  trolley  cars  on  either  side 
of  the  main  floor  and  in  front  of  the  cattle  stalls. 
The  capacity  of  the  hay  loft  is  260  tons.  The 
hay  is  taken  up  in  the  center  of  the  barn  and 


A\L 


GRAIN  BIN 


i  FIRST  FLOOR  PL/IN  {  FOljND/lTION  RAN 

FIG.     98.      ILLINOIS    CATTLE    BARN     (GROUND    PLAN). 

conveyed  by  reversible  carriers  to  either  end  of 
the  barn  and  is  thrown  down  in  center  of  main 
floor  to  feed  cattle  in  the  stalls.  The  racks  in 
the  box-stalls  are  filled  directly  from  the  loft 
through  trap  doors  in  the  floor  which  may  be 
closed  when  not  in  use.  Alleys  behind  the  stalls 
are  wide  enough  so  that  a  manure  spreader  for 
receiving  the  manure  may  be  driven  through  and 
taken  directly  to  the  fields. 

AN  OPEN-CENTER  CATTLE  BARN. 

The  cattle  barn  shown  herewith  is  50'  x  105' 
with  a  basement  10'  high  and  second  floor  posts 
16'.  Fig.  99  illustrates  plainly  the  method  of 
framing.     It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  an  open- 


center  barn.  "With  large  barns  of  this  type  there 
must  be  unloaded  a  great  deal  of  hay  and  there 
is  nothing  that  compares  with  the  sling  for  un- 
loading hay,  and  the  use  of  the  sling  calls  for  an 
open-center  barn  with  no  ties  across  the  mow 
floor.  Two  purlin  plates  support  the  roof.  The 
roof  is  half  pitch.  This  frame  is  built  of  solid 
timber,  but  2"  joists  may  be  used.  In  this  case 
a  few  hundred  dollars  in  expense  may  be  saved 
and  perhaps  a  stronger  and  better  frame  secured. 
Fig.  101  shows  the  basement  floor.  The  feed 
passage  is  4'  wide  with  the  mangers  taken  off; 


C3  =>  CJ  Q 

FIG.     99.      OPEN-CENTER    CATTLE    BARN     (FRAMEWORK). 


H/>y. 

JIVCLIIVE 
l>^l^t                                 OVEiiCUTtlUI 

BlNi  FOnOAtsLtc 

FIG.     100.      OPEN-CENTER    CATTLE]    BARN     (DETAIL). 

hay  is  thrown  directly  into  the  feed  passage  down 
chutes  reaching  from  the  mow  above  and  coming 
down  the  purlin  posts.  There  is  room  between 
the  rows  of  stalls  for  the  driving  in  of  the  wag- 
ons to  clean  out  the  trenches,  although  there  is 
not  room  to  drive  in  between  the  cows  when 
they  are  in  their  stalls.  The  stalls  may  be  put 
further  apart  than  they  are  if  it  is  not  thought 
best  to  turn  the  cattle  into  the  yard  while  the 
stable  is  being  cleaned.  The  stalls  are  SiA' 
apart,  thus  getting  14  animals  in  a  row.  The 
whole  barn  may  be  divided  in  this  way,  or  part 


68 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


of  it  may  be  made  into  pens  in  which  polled  or 
dehorned  cattle  may  run  loose.  Very  thorough 
ventilation  sliould  be  provided  in  so  large  a 
barn  where  so  many  animals  are  confined.  The 
hay  chutes  provide  (juite  well  to  carry  off  the 
vitiated  air,  but  provision  should  be  made  for  a 
fresh  in-flow.  The  bents  are  spaced  15'  apart 
because  that  distance  fits  the  stalls.    If  the  lum- 


■ — --w- 

WALK 

Siri.ii 

1   C   0    \V    S\J     A     L     L     S 

■ 

1 

FEED     PASSAGE 

D                                          a 

' 

1 

WALK 

^ 

■ 

^-- — ^^-^-^-^f-^H^rcll^         ^  - 

□                                                          D 

1 

FEED    ALL^y. 

1 

1 

■ 

■                                               o 

1 

Ut^^^       -                                                  ..- 

I 

CHOUNJ)     PMV_or 

Cattle   Bark. 

1 

o! 

SO  X  lOS.  WitK 

2} 

IS  rr.   Walus. 

1 

■ .                                    PoM^ 

( 

^^ 

The.se  btnti     m(Lfbe  fitted 

.Co 

uutt  n.  I>e.n.i    foi- ^-joon^      Oa.ttl^ 

I 

ILFi.       '           IS' ft      °        U  ft. 

1 

w 

? 

i 

FIG.      101.       OPEN-CENTER      CATTLE      BARN       (GROUND      FLOOR). 

ber  must  be  bought  it  would  be  better  to  use  16' 
spaces,  making  a  wider  feed  alley,  as  odd  lengths 
are  not  kept  in  stock.  This  would  make  the 
length  of  the  barn  112'.  Fig.  101  shows  the 
floor.    The  incline  of  the  driveway  is  built  over 


a  cistern  which  receives  its  supply  of  water  from 
the  roof.  The  oats  and  grovmd  feed  may  be 
spouted  from  the  bins  to  two  feed  alleys.  Dis- 
tribution of  the  ground  feed  may  be  made  by 
means  of  the  small  cart  pushed  by  hand  from 
which  may  be  measured  the  ration  that  each 
animal  is  to  receive.  Fig.  100  also  illustrates 
the  method  of  keeping  the  joists  from  being  in 
the  way  of  the  feed  alleys.  The  location  of 
the  stalls  in  the  basement  should  be  made  with 
accuracy  before  the  building  is  erected,  so  that 
nothing  will  l)e  in  the  way  when  all  is  done. 
If  built  in  joist  frame  this  barn  can  be  com- 
pleted in  good  shape  and  fitted  with  stalls  for 
from  $1,000  to  $1,500. 

A  I\IISS0UR1  BARN  PLAN. 

The  cattle  barn  shown  in  Fig.  102  was  built  by 
James  A.  Barrett  of  ]\Iissouri.  The  length  is 
52' ;  width,  36' ;  9'  and  16'  posts  are  used.  The 
timbers  are  8"  x  8"  and  8"  x  10".     An  8'  x  26' 


FIG.      102 


MISSOURI     BARN     PLAN. 


self-feeder  is  placed  in  the  basement.  The 
chutes  A  and  the  octagon  ends  of  the  cribs 
empty  into  the  self-feeder.  The  barn  has  a 
capacity  of  25  tons  of  hay,  1.500  busliels  of 
corn  and  500  bushels  of  oats.     Nine  single  and 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


69 


two  box-stalls  afford  ample  stabling  quarters. 
Forty  head  of  cattle  find  comfortable  quarters 
in  the  basement.  In  diagram,  G  represents  oat 
bins;  C  corncribs;  B  the  box-stalls  (which  are 
IQi/o'  X  12')  ;  S  single  stalls  5' ;  Z>  a  10'  drive- 
way; II  harness-room;  K  and  F  stairways  to 
the  hay  mow  and  basement  respectively.  At 
either  end  of  the  row  of  single  stalls  shown  at 
the  top  of  Fig.  102  chutes  are  placed  for  throw- 
ing hay  into  the  basement.  This  barn  was  built 
at  a  cost  of  $1,750. 

A  CATTLE  FEEDING  BARN. 

A  convenient  and  comparatively  cheap  barn 
in  which  to  grow  "baby  beef"  in  the  cornbelt 
may  be  constructed  from  the  general  descrip- 
tion and  plans  following : 

To  get  best  results  among  average  cattle  and 
in  a  climate  like  that  of  the  cornbelt  the  ani- 
mals should  run  loose  in  a  rather  small  yard, 


FIG.     103.       CATTLE    FEEDING    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


El 


Opt  K    7ar^ 


FIG.  104.   CATTLE  FEEDING  DARN  (FLOOR  PLAN). 

with  shelter  from  wind  and  storm.  It  is  with 
a  view  of  meeting  this  requirement  that  the 
enclosed  yard  shown  in  Fig.  104  is  provided  with 
a  shed  on  three  sides,  8'  in  the  clear  and  witli 
hay  loft  above.  There  is  a  manger  running 
along  the  outside  of  the  shed  in  which  may  be 
fed  hay  or  silage.  Hay  is  thrown  in  this  directly 
from  the  mow  through  a  slit  in  the  floor  and 


it  may  be  boarded  up  to  make  a  continuous 
chute  open  at  the  bottom  through  which  the 
cattle  draw  their  hay.  The  mow  is  7'  to  the 
eaves  and  over  18'  to  the  peak,  allowing  the 
use  of  horse  forks  for  filling  with  hay.  "While 
it  does  not  hold  a  great  amount  of  hay,  it  will 
held  an  entire  rick,  and  the  design  is  to  draw 


FIG.     105.       CATTLE    FEEDING    BARN     (CROSS-SECTION). 

during  good  weather  a  rick  at  a  time  and  stow 
it  away  in  the  dry.  The  sheds  and  yard  are 
large  enough  for  about  125  head  of  yearling 
steers.  Two  silos  are  provided  having  a  capacity 
of  more  than  200  tons  each.  The  doors  for 
emptying  are  inside  the  sheds  and  there  may  be 
an  overhead  track  carrying  a  large  box  along  the 
line  of  the  manger,  thus  making  feeding  easy  and 
rapid.  In  the  yard  (Fig.  101)  may  be  provided 
open  boxes  for  feeding  ear  corn  or  shock  corn 
when  desired.  As  this  yard  is  not  very  large 
it  might  be  expedient  in  many  cases  to  cement 
the  entire  bottom  and  save  mud  and  waste  of 
manure.  Sufficient  corn  should  be  fed  on  the 
stalk  to  bed  the  yard  thoroughly  and  keep  it 
dry  and  clean.  A  cement  tank  affords  water 
for  the  cattle.  Eave  troughs  carry  away  the 
drip  from  the  eaves.  ^Modern  tin  generally  lasts 
about  four  years  and  good  galvanized  iron  makes 
a  better  trough. 

Forty  acres  of  corn  in  a  favorable  season  will 
a  little  more  than  fill  the  silos.  There  is  silage 
enough  in  the  two  silcs  to  feed  175  calves  (year- 
lings) for  six  months,  provided  they  are  fed  at 


70 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


the  rate  of  25  pounds  per  head  per  day.  If 
there  is  a  little  silage  left  over  until  summer  it 
can  be  used  to  advantage  in  supplementing  pas- 
tures, which  are  often  short  during  a  part  of 
that  season. 

The  cross  section  of  the  frame  {Fig.  105) 
shows  a  building  30'  wide,  which  is  preferable 
to  one  of  less  width.  With  the  hay  self-feeder 
in  place  with  a  width  of  30',  a  height  of  posts 
of  18',  with  long  rafters  16'  and  short  rafters 
10'  enclosing  a  court  80'  in  diameter,  the  barn 
will  hold  nearly  300  tons  of  hay.  The  self- 
feeder  is  shown  in  cross-section  {Fig.  105)  ;  the 
continuous  chute  is  30"  wide,  the  manger  24" 
out  from  that,  the  chute  reaching  to  within  6" 
of  the  top  level  of  the  manger.  Doors  in  the 
chute  admit  of  hay  being  thrown  in  from  any 
level.  Strong  feed-racks  3i/^'  x  8'  that  can  be 
set  where  convenience  dictates  and  readily 
removed  on  occasion  are  preferred  to  permanent 
mangers.  The  side  opposite  the  hay-feeder  and 
next  to  the  enclosed  yard  is  open  except  that 
gates  may  be  hung  so  that  cattle,  when  putting 
in  silage,  for  instance,  can  be  shut  into  the 
yard. 

A  BARN  FOR  FEEDING  CATTLE  LOOSE. 

There  is  a  demand  for  cheap  barns  in  which 
to  store  forage  and  feed  to  cattle  below  running 
loose.  The  design  submitted  {Figs.  106  and 
107),  has  several  good  features.  Hay  stored 
above  is  thrown  through  chutes  into  the  central 


FIG.    106.       BARN    FOR    FEEDING    CATTLE    LOOSE     (ELEVATION). 

feeding  alley,  and  thence  placed  in  two  long 
mangers,  in  which  the  grain  may  also  be  fed. 
The  openings  may  be  at  the  ends  or  sides  and 
wagons  will  be  driven  through  to  remove  the 


manure.  This  building  may  be  of  any  conven- 
ient length,  or  may  enclose  three  sides  of  a  square 
open  to  the  south  in  which  cattle  will  be  shel- 
tered. It  is  all  of  joist  frame  construction,  with- 
out sills  or  wooden  floor.  The  floor  is  hard  clay, 
which  is  as  good  as  anything  where  cattle  run 


Shed    //l(,o 


MiL'ftr   2.f.(,o 


Ited  -p,. 


FIG.    107.       BARN    FOR    FEEDING    CATTLE    LOOSE     (FLOOR). 

loose.    The  barn  has  a  hay  track  in  the  peak  and 
hay  is  taken  in  at  one  end  of  the  barn. 

AN  IOWA  STEER  BARN. 

H.  J.  Hess'  barn  in  Blackhawk  Co.,  la., 
shown  in  Figs.  108  and  109,  is  60'x80'  with  14' 
outside  posts.  It  was  built  for  feeding  steers 
and  will  accommodate  more  than  100  head  be- 
sides 160  tons  of  hay.  The  first  floor  or  base- 
ment is  one  large  enclosure  with  a  driveway 
running  through  lengthways.  This  driveway  is 
wide  enough  to  admit  a  team  and  manure 
spreader  to  pass  through  the  barn. 

The  mow  floor  is  supported  by  posts  which 
stand  upon  cut  stone  caps  12"  x  14",  and  these 
caps  rest  upon  concrete  bases  18"  x  18"  and  24" 
deep.  In  making  the  concrete  bases  (see  Fig. 
109)  holes  were  dug  a  little  more  than  2'  deep 
and  into  each  was  placed  an  empty  cement  bar- 
rel having  about  12"  of  it  sawed  off  and  the 


PIG.    108.       AN    IOWA    STEER    BARN     (CONSTRUCTION). 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


71 


head  taken  out;  the  concrete  was  then  tamped 
tlioroughly  in  these  barrels  and  when  it  became 
hard  the  hoops  on  the  barrels  were  cut  and  the 
staves  removed,  leaving  a  round  concrete  pier 
on  which  to  lay  the  stone  caps. 

The  outside  wall  of  the  barn  was  made  of 
stones  (boulders)  laid  in  cement.  It  is  31^2' 
high,  3'  wide  at  the  base  and  2'  wide  on  top. 
About  18"  of  it  is  in  the  ground.  From  the 
ground  floor  to  the  mow  floor  is  10' ;  this  gives 
the  cattle  plenty  of  room.  The  second  floor  or 
hay  mow  will  hold  about  160  tons  of  hay,  which 
is  fed  through  six  chutes,  three  on  each  side  of 
the  barn,  placed  10'  on  each  side  of  the  center 
of  the  mow,  thus  making  the  two  rows  of  chutes 
20'  apart.  These  chutes  are  cone-shaped,  larger 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  feed  into  a 


>"-»*•— 1 


-J.„.V..^ 


If  It 


lO- « »- «- -Wr *  ; HO- * -itf- » »■■ 

i 


=n        d        B' 


D        n^ 


CONCRETE  FIERS  lgXl8x%4' BEEP  WITH  STONE  CA?  12x14 
>=a  D  0  D  D'^ 


=D  D 


'4 


a-= 


IS  iF 


■D^ 


=n 


□^ 


3  ■■<>■*•■ C 


3..  ^^-.-c 


FIG.    109.       AN    IOWA    STEER    BARN     (BASEMENT). 

manger  below.    They  extend  to.  the  roof  and  hay 
may  be  pitched  into  them  at  any  point. 

The  barn  is  built  of  2"  pine  stuff;  there  is  not 
a  solid  timber  in  it.  All  the  posts  are  con- 
tinuous from  the  capstones  to  the  roof,  being 
spliced  with  heavy  spikes.  The  siding  is  8" 
dressed  and  matched.  The  large  hay  room  or 
mow  was  made  possible  by  constructing  the  hip 
roof.  Hay  is  taken  in  by  slings.  The  barn  cost 
$2,000  a  few  years  ago. 


BARN  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Thos.  Johnson  of  Ohio  built  a  barn  that  is  de- 
scribed as  one  of  the  best  in  America.  The  plan 
is  so  simple  and  adaptable  that  almost  any  farm- 
er or  cattle  breeder  could  imitate  it.  The  general 
form  is  of  a  long  and  rather  narrow  barn,  with 
two  equal  wings  enclosing  three  sides  of  a  court 
80'  X  88'.  It  is  so  designed  that  there  shall 
be  an  open  shed  across  the  front  of  the  court, 
thus  completely  enclosing  the  space  and  effec- 
tually shutting  off  all  wind  and  storm  from 
whatever  direction  it  may  come.  See  Figs.  110 
to  119. 

The  thought  in  designing  this  barn  was,  first, 
at  the  least  cost  to  provide  shelter,  warmth  and 
food  for  the  animals.  Next,  to  see  that  they 
were  amply  provided  with  light  and  air;  then 
that  they  should  be  so  stalled  as  to  appear  in 
plain  view  to  visitors  in  all  their  comeliness; 
then  that  it  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  easy 
to  care  for  and  feed  the  cattle  and  to  remove 
the  litter;  then  that  there  should  be  ample  stor- 
age room  for  all  the  forage  and  straw  that  the 
cattle  would  need.  In  working  out  these  ideas 
the  architect  called  to  his  aid  all  the  experi- 
ence that  he  had  gathered  during  a  number 
of  years  spent  in  examining  good  barns  and  in 
designing  them  himself.  The  task  is  not  alto- 
gether an  easy  one  when  one  is  determined  to 
create  the  best  type,  nor  is  there  room  for  very 
great  variation ;  the  best  will  pretty  sharply 
limit  the  designer  to  certain  forms  and  prin- 
ciples. 

First,  then,  as  to  form.  This  barn  is  meant 
to  provide  shelter  for  about  100  pure-bred  cat- 
tle, many  of  them  receiving  individual  atten- 
tion. It  might  have  had  a  compact  form,  with 
double  the  width  that  it  now  has,  and  the  first 
cost  of  construction  would  have  been  less,  but 
so  designed  the  ventilation  and  the  lighting  could 
not  have  been  so  good.  Built  in  narrow  form 
it  encloses  the  great  sunny  open  court  and  this 
will  be  of  great  service  in  caring  for  cattle  and 
in  keeping  them  in  health  and  vigor.  Thus  the 
narrow  form  was  plainly  prescribed. 

As  many  of  the  cattle  would  be  breeding 
cows  with  th^ir  calves  it  was  essential  that  the 
stalls  be  so  arranged  that  the  calves  would  be 
close  to  their  mothers  and  that  they  should  be 
readily  turned  to  their  mothers  to  be  suckled 
and  as  readily  put  back  to  their  own  open  stalls. 
Moreover,  the  calf  stalls  should  be  sunny  and 
clean  and  comfortable.  Along  the  north  side  of 
the  main  barn  was  put  a  row  of  cow  stalls,  each 
one  double,  taking  two  cows  tied  with  chains, 
and  right  behind  them  a  row  of  calf  stalls,  or 
stalls  that  could  be  used  for  either  calves  or  for 


72 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    110.       BARN    FOR   BEEF    CATTLE    (NORTHE.iST    ELEVATION). 


wn'  WI2' 


iMLL 
CONCKtU 


msuL 

STALLS 
8'WIDi 


DW 


FEED  ROOM 
16x16' 


I  s^m  I     I     \     I     i     r 


,       0OOS8'6 
WE  VV4  .•  *'K 


I       I       J       I       1 

PA55fli.'E  I0'<l60' 


..         I 


FOR  I.005E  CATFLE  36*80 


T    i^T?  yvir  nlr 


HO 

I 

OPEN  SHED  < 

X 

T 

u; 

»V6' 

, 

COVKl 


8-12 


3: 

. 

• 

5 

\ 

^u 

O 

L 

M 

WI2' 

'  2 

2: 


160' 


FIG.  111.   BARN  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  (GROUND  PLAN). 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


73 


6'  12'     o" 

FIG.  112.   BARX  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  ( FUONT  ELEVATION). 


D.0 


FIG.    113.       BARN    FOR    BEEF    CATTLE     (SECTION    THROUGH    REAR). 


hospital  stalls  or  for  nurseries  with  mothers  and 
calves. 

In  any  heef  cattle  herd  there  will  be  a  number 
of  dry  cows  and  heifers  that  are  better  off 
not  to  be  tied  up  at  all,  and  these  could  be  well 
cared  for  to  run  loose  and  have  only  shelter 
from  the  w^eather  and  a  morsel  of  alfalfa  or 
clover,  with  perhaps  a  ration  of  silage  or  a  bite 
of  bran.  Therefore  one  wing  was  designed  to 
be  for  the  use  of  loose  cattle,  fed  together  in 


open  mangers.  And  as  there  would  be  bulls 
and  other  animals  needing  strong,  tight  stalls 
it  was  designed  that  one  wing  should  be  given 
over  to  these  stalls.  As  all  that  goes  into  a 
barn  must  come  out  it  was  designed  that  carts 
or  manure  spreaders  might  be  delivered  through 
tlie  barn  from  end  to  end  and  transversely, 
while  overhead  feed  carrier  tracks  would  carry 
large  boxes  of  feed  along  in  front  of  the  calves 
and  along  the  rows  of  box-stalls.     Hay    would 


FIGS.    114    AND    115.       BARN    FOR    BEEF    CATTLE     (FRAMEWORK    AND    SHED    FRAME). 


74 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


y" 


^ 


u 


CALf  PENS  [ 


y 


-y 


0 Q^     GATE    .^^^,,6^        ^  A  ri:^jT^X   G/lTf        ^  f^  .  rT.  A 


FIG.  116.   BARN  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  (CALF  PENS). 


[1 


n. 


a 


n 


30' 


CONCRETE    FLOOR 


s'e' 


PASSAGE  10 


DROP  4' 


FIG.    117.       BARN    FOR    BEEF    CATTLE     (STALLS). 


1  I     1     '      I      '      I     ,  ^~^~~T 


I  I 


L   '    > 

no  SASH  3  LIGNT  I2ix32l 
,  3"lRAILT0PAKD  BOTTOM 


III 


I       I 


1 1 1 1  1 1 ;  1 1 

I  -I   I  1 1  i  1 1= 


QOi-' 


/    ' 


h  


I  Ml  I- 1  I 


FIG.  118.   BARN  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  (SASH  WORK). 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


75 


be  conveniently  put  in  from  the  middle  of  the 
barn,  going  each  way  and  from  each  wing,  enter- 
ing at  the  ends.  All  would  be  floored  with  con- 
crete, including  the  court. 

Thus  the  plan  was  worked  out — a  main  barn 
160'  long,  with  two  wings  each  116',  a  width  of 
36'  and  posts  of  18';  a  lower  story  8'  in  clear, 
9'  to  floor  joists,  stalls  8'  wide,  each  holding 
two  cows  (which  gives  fine  room)  and  box- 
stalls  8'  X  12'  for  calves  and  single  matrons  with 
larger  stalls  for  bulls.  The  carpenter  lessened 
the  height  of  the  barn  by  2'  and  thus  without 
any  material  saving  in  expense  greatly  lessened 


P- 


00 


d. 


TJ 


7 


about  the  building.  They  are  as  high  up  as 
possible,  out  of  the  way  of  cattle.  They  are 
glazed  with  12"  x  32"  glass,  three  to  each  sash, 
are  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  open  inwardly; 
when  the  building  is  complete  these  windows 
will  be  controlled  by  greenhouse  sash  openers  so 
that  an  entire  row  may  be  opened  slightly,  or 
wide  as  may  be  needed.  Ventilation  is  by 
means  of  these  windows  and  up  through  chutes 
passing  through  the  mow  above  while  ample 
ventilators  carry  away  the  vapors.  It  was  not 
thought  best  in  this  barn,  designed  for  beef  cat- 
tle well  fleshed  and  thus  cold-resistant,  to  at- 

w.iz' 


IBOX 
8 


rS 


TT 


.STALLS 
h2' 


rr 


J3. 


o 


_r 


^ 


rr 


o 

^ 

v 

9 

>- 

^S 

<: 

R  CO 

^ 
^ 

Q,   lO 

<: 
-J- 
a. 

a: 
o 
o 


"O 


DOUBLE  vSTALL5 
FAKTOFTJIESE  STALLS  TO  BE  OfilLY 
MANeER 


5VlON6 


TJ 


510N6  m  HEIFEJRSi SHORT  COWS 
TO  DROP 


MANGER  36' 


PASSAGE  56  WITH  OVER  HEAD.  TRACK  MD  CARRIER 


WI2' 


WJ2' 


w.iz' 


FIG.    119.       BARN    FOR    BEEF    CATTLE     (INTERIOR    ARRANGEMENT). 


its  carrying  capacity  of  hay  and  straw,  and 
should  any  other  barn  for  similar  purpose  be 
constructed  the  proportions  as  originally 
planned  for  Mr.  Johnson  should  be  preserved. 
The  barn  is  admirable ;  take  one  wing  of  it  or 
any  section,  and  if  a  breeder  cannot  afford  to 
own  it  in  its  entirety  he  can  copy  48',  64',  80' 
or  96'  of  its  length  with  confidence  in  its  pro- 
portions. 

Calling  attention  to  some  essential  features, 
the   windows   form   almost   a   continuous   band 


tempt  to  keep  the  temperature  high,  and  it  was 
believed  that  an  abundance  of  fresh  air,  even 
though  comparatively  cold,  would  better  con- 
duce to  the  health  of  the  cattle.  Thus  also  the 
outer  court  was  planned  so  that  every  matron 
should  spend  part  of  her  time  therein  each  day 
unless  the  weather  proved  unusually  severe. 

The  problem  of  stalls  is  one  that  received 
much  thought;  many  measurements  of  good- 
sized  cows  were  taken  before  a  decision  was 
reached.      Finally  a  length  of  5'  from  front  of 


76 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    120.       WISCOXSIX    CATTLE   BARN     (ELEVATION). 


manger  to  drop  was  decided  on,  with  part  of 
the  stalls  5'  6"  long  to  drop.  The  drop  in  the 
design  is  but  4"  and  from  it  the  floor  slopes 
upward  to  the  level  of  the  stall  in  a  distance 
of  30".  Of  course  this  slope  must  be  rough 
enough  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  animals  step- 
ping thereon,  but  it  effectually  prevents  the 
spread  of  urine  over  the  walk  and  at  the  same 
time  makes  cleaning  very  easy.  The  front  of 
the  manger  may  be  30"  high,  to  be  built  of  2" 
oak  plank  and  to  this  front  the  cows  are  at- 


tached. They  need  not  reach  down  30"  to  eat, 
since  the  floor  of  the  manger  is  raised  12"  and 
this  floor  extends  level  across  the  feed  alley 
Avhich  is  6'  wide,  and  thus  the  feeder  may  feed 
the  cows  on  the  level  of  the  alleyway,  and  as 
there  is  no  back  to  the  mangers  there  can  be  no 
accumulation  of  refuse  gather,  and  after  each 
feeding  all  may  be  swept  out  readily.  Cows 
pull  their  food  toward  them,  rather  than  push 
it  away,  and  therefore  a  back  to  a  manger  is 
not  necessary.    The  partitions  between  the  stalls 


FIG.     121.       WISCONSIN    CATTLE    BARN     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


CATTLE  DARNS. 


77 


extend,  however,  30"  in  to  the  space  in  front  of 
1  lie  tying  board  and  thus  separate  the  feed  that 
is  given  one  cow  from  what  is  given  another. 
It  is  believed  that  this  simple  manger  is  more 
^atisfactory  for  this  class  of  cows  than  any  other 
yet  devised,  and  its  form  is  such  that  it  hides 
ilie  animals  comparatively  little.  With  wild  or 
obstreperous  cows  a  front  board  may  be  placed 
;it  the  top  of  the  ends  of  division  planks,  so 
that  they  will  not  try  to  jump  across  their  man- 
ii'ers. 

An  overhead  track  in  front  of  the  cows  car- 
ries a  large  feed  carrier.  The  feed  room  is  in 
;i   central  place  and  all  the  bins  for  grain  are 


in  the  second  story  of  this,  the  grinder  also,  and 
below  are  bins  for  mixing  feed.  It  will  be 
observed  that  a  driveway  goes  across  the  line 
of  stalls  near  one  end ;  it  is  designed  that  swing- 
ing partitions  here  will  readil}'  convert  this  into 
mangers,  since  only  occasionally  will  the  manure 
cart  need  to  pass  this  way. 

A  large  water  tank  in  the  courtyard  affords 
a  means  of  watering  the  anin^als  and  a  large 
elevated  tank  at  the  rear  holds  a  supply,  part 
of  which  may  be  received  from  the  capacious 
roof.  Nothing  has  been  added  to  this  barn  for 
show;  it  is  purely  a  business  barn,  and  yet  it 
looks  exceedingly  well. 


-14 


80' 


ROOT  CELLAR 


/ 


I      1-^=1 


FKDROOM 

Z OATS  BOX 
pCHOPfEEO 


BOX 


SfALLS 


10  M2 


DOUdk  STALLS 
10  V  8 


SI  N6L|  HORSE  STAIlLS 

5x8' 


MMM]ni^24  TOE 


CEMEWT 

:    SEd 


SLIDING  iDOORP 
FORTANK 


CO 


I 


I 


LU 


TANK 


MANGER 


(K 


it 


J 
J 


i 


S3 

I 

00«D 


mm 


I 


:co/ 


S3 


J  I 
J 


CO 


?\G2t5 


J 


GAThESTALs 


BOX 


SIDEVIEV7  OF  WATER  TAMK 


^i°^ 


zi: 


FI6.1 


30' 


Fia.  122.     WISCONSIN  cattle  barn   (ground  floor). 


78 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


•14 


-80 


GRANARY 


S^-S' 


^"^ 


.1 


DOivn 


Ojft 


HAY 


HAY  CHUTE 


liO 


-+--. 


^1  t\l 

Sx8 


.^ 


%- 


STRAW  CHUTE 


^ 


Wi"&* 


TRAPDOOP 
HAY 


I 


HAYCHUTE 


J  STRAW 
CHUTE 


8x8 

IDhay 

.  CHUTE 
HAy 


«^ 


8x8 


^^      HAY 


HAYCHUTE 


siaT 


Jx8 


^^     HAY 


HAYCHUTE 


KP 


k"^^ 


m' 


.-50 — 


lO 


ZUDVilW 


SIDE  VIEW 


DOUBLE  MANGER 


ROUND  PIECES 
5'CENTERS 


'<         30- 

FIG.    123.       WISCONSIN    CATTLE    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR). 


FI&.2 


FIG  3 


A  WISCONSIN  CATTLE  BARN. 

Figs.  120,  121,  122  and  i5.5  show  an  L-shaped 
flattie  barn  which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  general 
farm  barn.  Small  Figs.  2  and  3  give  an  idea 
of  the  dovble  manger  used  in  the  box-stalls 
shown  in  Fig.  122.  The  total  length  of  the 
barn  is  92'  and  width  94',  including  the  14'  x 
28'  root  cellar.  One  of  the  main  features  of 
this  barn  is  the  ample  space  provided  for  hay 
storage  (see  Fig.  123).  The  total  cost,  not 
including  board  of  workmen  and  expense  of  get- 
ting out  rock,  was  as  follows:  Hardware, 
$145.88;  lumber,  $1,956;  mason  work,  lime  and 
cement,  $429.10 ;  tin   work  and  spout,  $59.13 ; 


lime  and  cement  for  cistern,  $27.35;  carpenter 
work,  $550.50. 

A  CATTLE  BARN  IN  INDIANA. 

The  barn  illustrated  in  Figs.  124,  125,  126 
and  127,  is  108'  long  by  60'  wide  with  a 
silo  16'  in  diameter  and  in  height  24'  above 
ground  and  81/0'  in  the  bank,  the  portion  under 
ground  being  cement  and  that  above  wood. 
The  water  is  pumped  from  a  flowing  well 
shown  in  a  corner  of  the  fence.  Fig.  126,  into 
the  tank  in  the  feed  room.  Fig.  126,  and  from 
there  into  the  tank  at  north  end  of  the  barn. 
Fig.   126.      The   whole   foundation   is   built   of 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


79 


FIG.     IJl.        A    CATTLE    UAUX    IX    l.NUIANA     (ELEVATION). 


rcinent  and  extends  2'  above  the  ground.  The 
Iced  troughs  rest  on  the  cement  wall,  Fig.  125, 
jiiid  total  about  35'  of  trough  and  rack,  which 
will  accommodate  100  head  of  cattle  at  one 
tiiiie.  Fig.  126  shows  the  horse  stalls  and  grain 
bins  on  the  second  lioor,  also  the  truss  rods  under 
tiie  third  floor. 


A  BARN  FOR  125  CATTLE. 

The  problem  of  accommodating  125  head  of 
cattle  is  a  simple  one  (see  Fig.  128).  They 
should  have  approximately  40  square  feet  of  floor 
space  when  running  loose.  That  makes  a  need 
for   around   5,000   square    feet   of   floor   room. 


SHED  ROOF  OVER  DOUBLE  FEED  TROUGH 


FIG.     125.        A    CATTLE    BARN    IN     INDIANA     (BASEMENT     PLAN). 


so 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


~    10 


DOtJDL[  FFED  TROUGH  l\m  MGff- 


LOOSE  CATTLE 


-ROLLING  DOOR 
If 


3 

"L_ 


FEED  TROUGH  AWC  RACK 


o 
o 


FEED  ALLEY 


LOOSE  CATTLE' 


FFEd  TROUGH  AND  RACK 
BOX  STALLS 


9' 


9' 


ir 


CALF  STALL 


50 


BOX 

:2 


bj 


BULL 
STALL 


yWTERTANK 


FEED  TROUGHS  RACK 

FIG.     126.       A    CATTLE   BARN    IN    INDIANA     (FIRST    FLOOR    PLAN). 


2          '^— 1 

for  straw 
th;ro  floor 

^ 

■-^-.1                1^ 

TRUSS  ROD 

12' 

9'          12' 

7' 

20' 

^SHa)PROJ[CTINeOy£R54 
\0OUBl£RACK 


FECD TROUGH 
AND  RACK 

FIG.      127.       A     CATTLE     EARN     IN     INDIANA      (CROSS-SECTION). 

There  might  be  built  then  approximately  a  barn 
24'  X  216'  (which  would  be  the  plan  here  out- 
lined if  it  were  in  a  straight  line),  or  a  barn 
40'  X  125'  or  30'  x  160'  or  32'  x  156'  or  32'  x 
168'  (allowing  for  12  bents,  each  14').  Each 
animal  must  be  given  room  to  eat  and  no  cor- 
ners in  which  one  can  be  crowded.  All  things 
considered  a  width  of  no  more  than  24'  or  32' 
will  give  the  best  satisfaction  in  use.  It  is  wise 
to  place  the  corncribs  apart  from  the  barn  for 
various  reasons — rats  for  one,  ventilation  for 
another.  The  corn  can  then  be  kept  in  a  rat- 
proof  crib  and  carried  to  the  barn  either  in  a 
horse  cart  or  wagon  or  in  carriers  made 
expressly  for  tliis  service  running  on  overhead 
tracks.  If  this  arrangement  is  desired  the  cribs 
or  else  the  grinder  must  be  on  opposite  sides  so 
that  the  tracks  will  not  cross  the  roadway.  There 
is  no  objection  to  putting  a  gasoline  engine  in 
a  proper  room  in  the  barn  since  the  fuel  may  be 


at  a  long  distance,  carried  in  a  small  pipe.  No 
fires  are  known  to  originate  from  this  method. 

The  advantage  of  the  L  arrangement  is  the 
shelter  afforded  from  the  wind,  but  it  is  not 
adaptal)le  to  all  sites  and  must  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  the  ground.  It  may  easily  be  better 
to  place  the  whole  length  in  a  straight  line,  or 
it  may  curve  regularly  in  a  semi-circle  if  the 
ground  fits  that  construction,  by  making  the 
inner  side  of  each  bent  shorter  than  the  outer 
side.  Hay  would  be  put  in  from  the  driveway 
and  from  the  ends,  though  there  can  readily  be 
built  another  transverse  driveway  for  hay 
unloading  and  that  would  really  be  better. 
Crushed  corn  will  be  distributed  in  the  base- 
ment by  means  of  a  carrier  made  for  the  pur- 
pose passing  each  trough  and  manger. 

The  framing  is  very  simple  and  cheap.  The 
basement  will  be  above  ground  unless  per- 
haps where  the  driveway  is,  and  all  the  one  side 
wull  be  open  to  the  yard  except  where  closed 
by  the  mangers.  'These  communicate  with 
chutes  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  mow  so  that 
every  manger  may  be  filled  without  going  into 
the  basement  at  all.  Corn  can  not  be  satisfac- 
torily fed  from  above.  This  narrow  barn  is 
very  economical  of  construction,  seeing  that 
the  timbers  are  small  and  the  stress  is  slight. 
The  joist  frame  and  self-supporting  roof  will  be 
used  throughout  and  very  common  rough  boards 
wall  serve  for  floor  of  mow.  Bear  in  mind  that 
the  L  shape  is  not  an  essential  part  of  the  plan, 
that  the  serai-circular  or  straight  arrangement 
is  just  as  simple. 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


81 


AN  INDIANA  STOCK  BARN.  double  and  the  joists  broken.    The  studding  for 

the  sides  are  16'  long  set  2'  on  centers.     They 

Fig.  129  shows  the  plan  of  the  barn  built  for     have  a  shoulder  cut  in  the  top  end  to  admit  of  a 

a  Decatur  Co.,  Ind.,  breeder.     All  the  walls  of     2"  x  4"  being  spiked  to  them.     The  foot  of  the 

the    foundation    are    concrete    and    are    in    the     rafter  is  cut  to  correspond  with  the  studding, 


3fe' 


ENGINE  ROOM 

AND 
GRINDER 


1  a 


Ti  u~r. n D — 

MANGER  36  W     FOR  HAY  AND  CORN 


\       OPEN       ^MANGER  36"[^      OPEN       ^MANGER  j<" 


CO 

Q- 

X 

o 

•-" 

u 

% 

> 

CO 

CO 

cr 

cs: 

a- 

X 

Q 

X 

VO 

D 

vo 

m 

UJ 

CQ 

QC 

QL 

o 

> 

o 
o 

O 

12  12 

^.  FIG.     128.       BARN    FOR    125    CATTLE. 

ground  to  the  depth  of  about  2',  making 
it  a  very  undesirable  place  for  rats.  The  out- 
side walls  have  a  slope  of  1"  to  the  foot 
and  are  at  8"  wide  at  the  top.  The  cross  walls 
under  the  stall  partitions  are  6"  at  the  top  and 
are  built  about  straight.  The  mangers  and  feed 
room  floors  are  concrete  also,  the  mangers  being 
28". 

The  sills  are  made  of  2"  x  8"  piece  stuff  laid 


only  it  is  a  reverse  cut.     The  mow  joists  are 
2"  X 10"    in   the    side    mows    and   2"  x  12"    over 


STALL 
lOX  1  ()' 

S'ALL 

STALL 

i 

:               -STALL 

1 
i 

TEED ROOM 
CONCRETE  FLOOR 

a 

O          STALL 
t 

1- 

a.          STALL 

z 

8 

STALL 

STALL 

STALL 
1 

ROLLER  DOORS 


EACH   STALL 


FEED  RO'_-M 
CONCRETE  FIJ3CRI 


FIG.     129.       AN    INDIANA    STOCK    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


82 


FARM  BUILDIISIGS. 


FIG.     130.       AN    INDIANA    STOCK    BARN     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


the  driveway.  The  hatchway  for  taking  up  the 
hay  is  located  in  the  center  of  the  barn.  There 
are  trap  doors  between  the  hatchway  and  each 
end  also.  As  the  hay  is  fed  out  these  can  be 
opened  to  save  carrying  the  feed  so  far. 

The  section  shown  in  Fig.  131  is  comprised 
of  the  following  pieces  of  timber:  side  studding 


FIG.     131.        AX     INDIANA     STOCK    BARN     (CROSS-SECTION). 

2"  X  8",  16'  long ;  rafters  2"  x  6",  first  span  20' 
long  and  the  top  span  16'  long ;  braces  2"  x  6", 
10'  long.  There  are  about  45,000  feet  of  hard 
wood  in  the  building  and  10,000  feet  of  dressed 
yellow  pine,  also  65,000  shingles  to  cover. 

The  roof  has  three  double  dormer  windows 
on  each  side  and  a  cupola  on  top  with  double 
windows  on  each  side.  The  combs  of  the  dor- 
mer windows  are  on  a  level  with  the  break  in 
the  main  roof. 

The  outside  weather  boarding  is  yellow  pine 


drop  siding  and  the  inside  finish  is  shiplap  put 
on  diagonally.  The  doors  are  all  roller  doors. 
The  whole  cost  of  the  barn  was  $2,800  when 
originally  built. 

NORTH  DAKOTA  COLLEGE  BARN. 

The  main  part  of  this  cattle  barn  stands 
north  and  south,  and  is  135'  long  and  37'  wide. 
It  holds  two  rows  of  stock  facing  the  center, 
with  a  5'  feed  passage  through  the  middle.  The 
feed  passage  connects  with  the  silo,  which  al- 
lows the  silage  to  be  thrown  into  a  small  truck 
and  drawn  through  the  passageway  between  the 
mangers  as  it  is  fed  to  the  stock.  (See  Fig. 
132.) 

On  the  east  is  a  projection  10'  long  by  32' 
wide,  containing  an  office,  a  stair  and  a  milk 
room.  On  the  west  is  a  large  wing  50'  long  by 
37'  wide,  with  two  rows  of  box-stalls  of  different 
sizes,  stairs,  watering  troughs,  and  closet.  The 
building  has  16'  studding  throughout. 

The  stalls  are  of  the  Bidwell  pattern,  and  are 
of  different  sizes,  ranging  from  3'  to  3'  4"  in 
width,  and  they  are  5'  and  6'  in  length.  The 
manger  is  3'  wide  and  8"  high,  and  is  movable. 
It  has  a  fence  like  a  partition  in  the  middle, 
which  prevents  the  animal  walking  forward 
through  it.  This  stall  can  be  adjusted  to  suit 
the  size  of  the  animal.  The  gutters  are  16" 
wide  and  6"  deep  at  the  back,  with  1"  slope 
from  front  to  back.  The  box-stalls  are  of  dif- 
ferent sizes. 

The  second  floor  has  feed  bins,  attendant's 
room  and  hay  mows.  The  hay  is  taken  in  by 
means  of  hay  forks  to  all  parts  of  the  barn. 

The  floors  of  the  office  and  milk  rooms  are 
double,   with   building   paper   between.      These 


CATTLE  BARNS. 
-37- ^ 


83 


FKJ.    1.32.        NORTH    DAKOTA    COLUEGE    BARN     (FLOOR    PIAN). 


PASSAGE  TO  SO  J  rn  ^S^ 


FIQ.    133.       BARN    AT    MICHIGAN    COLLEGE     (ARRANGEMENT). 


84 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


rooms  are  ceiled  with  western  fir  ceiling.  The 
remainder  of  the  first  fioor  is  laid  with  sized 
2"  X 10"  plank.  The  planks  constituting  the 
stall  floors  are  laid  with  western  fir  throughout. 
The  silo  is  round  in  form  and  is  24'  in  diam- 
eter, inside  measurement.  The  wall  is  made 
of  brick,  28'  high  and  20"  thick,  with  a  dead 
air  space  in  tlie  center  of  it.  The  floor  and  \vall 
are  cemented  with  the  best  grade  of  cement.  A 
dormer  window  in  the  silo  serves  as  an  intake 
for  green  corn  or  otlier  material  with  which  the 
pit  is  filled.  A  second  dormer  Avindow  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  roof  furnishes  light. 

MICHIGAN  COLLEGE  BARN. 

Fig.  133  represents  the  grade  beef  herd  barn 
in  use  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 
This  is  a  remodeled  structure,  the.  building  hav- 
ing originally  been  used  for  a  grain  barn.  The 
outer  dimensions  of  the  foundation  are  45'  x  80'. 
The  barn  will  accommodate  33  head  of  mature 
cattle  and  from  18  to  20  head  of  calves  and 
yearlings.  The  first  row  of  11  stalls  from  the 
south  end  is  filled  with  swinging  stanchions  and 
short  partitions  to  permit  calves  to  suckle  with 
ease.  The  second  row  of  stalls  is  fitted  for  the 
handling  of  milch  cows;  these  stalls  are  sepa- 
rated by  gates  and  the  cow  is  kept  in  place  by 
a  chain  fastened  across  behind.  The  remaining 
or  third  row  is  fitted  with  heavy  solid  plank  par- 
titions, for  handling  feeder  steers.     In  front  of 


each  row  of  mangers  there  is  a  feed  box  for  each 
animal,  designed  to  hold  about  a  week's  rations 
of  concentrates ;  while  this  is  necessary  in  experi- 
mental work,  it  would  not  be  needed  by  the 
farmer.  The  five  calf  pens  are  fitted  with 
stanchions  which  are  used  to  secure  calves  and 
young  animals  at  feeding  time  only.  Chutes  are 
so  arranged  that  hay  is  dropped  from  above  into 
the  feed  alleys  and  straw  behind  the  stalls  at 
the  most  convenient  points.  The  manure  gut- 
ters are  6"  deep  from  the  stall  side  and  4"  on 
the  opposite  side  ;  they  are  16"  wide.  The  manure 
is  conveyed  by  car  running  on  a  cable  to  a  con- 
crete manure  shed,  about  60'  from  the  barn. 
The  amount  and  placing  of  lights  have  proved 
to  be  about  ideal. 

BARN  FOR  PURE-BRED  CATTLE. 

Figs.  134  and  135  represent  the  pure-bred 
dairy  and  beef  barn  now  in  use  at  the  Michigan 
Agricultural  College.  This  entire  structure  was 
originally  designed  for  a  dairy  barn,  and  the 
north  part  was  fitted  solely  with  box-stalls  which 
have  been  removed  and  fitted  to  handle  the  pedi- 
gree beef  herd,  thus  putting  all  pure-bred  cat- 
tle under  the  same  roof.  The  two  parts  are  to 
be  entirely  separated  on  the  ground  floor.  The 
main  building  on  the  north  end,  43' x  70',  now 
furnishes  stall  room  for  at  least  16  head  of  ma- 
ture cows  and  from  24  to  36  head  of  young 
stuff,  depending  on  size ;  the  young  dairy  stock 


PIG.    134,       BARN   FOR   PURE-BRED    CATTLE     (ELEVATION). 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


85 


imi!!l!mil44444m 


UTTit'-i.kl  I  I  HTtm  1  li  M  i  hhA- 

i-p-i i 1  |,„y,„  I « , »- 


J-'uF^E-BREtl  BfMHyf^NU  BeEF  BrM 


FIG.     135.        BARN    FOR    PURE-BRED    CATTLE     (BASEMENT). 


FIG.     136.       CATTLE    BARN    WITH    OPEN    YARDS     (ELEVATION). 


is  being  handled  in  this  division.  By  this  plan 
the  young  calves  have  easy  access  to  their  dams 
to  nurse.  The  apartments  marked  calf  pens  are 
fitted  witli  adjustable  stancliions  to  handle  any 
age  from  calves  to  yearlings.    All  calf  pens  are 


provided  with  access  to  yardage.  The  manure 
from  the  entire  stable  is  removed  by  cars  run- 
ning the  entire  length  of  both  alleys  and  con- 
necting with  a  shed  located  just  south  of  the 
silo,  this  shed    now  being  connected  with  barn. 


86 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


' 120 -» 

5; 

/ 

0 

□  s 

MLES 

z 

Z3 

ENTRANCE 


OFFICE' 


I- 


CARRIAGE  HOUSE  8  FLOOR 


1^'^ 

^ 
^ 


160 


BARN 


ym  ^  - 1 


ROOF 


ROOF 


FLOOR 


20' 


■£i    GRANARY 


t^         '^c 


GRANARY 


ROOF 


S   ALLET  WAY  BETWEEN  BARN  AND  SILOS  fS  § 
COVERED  i  BRICKED  ;  1= 
-  91 


■ti 


O     O     O'^ 


SILD 


SILO 


SILO 


FIG  137.   CATTLE  BARN  WITH  OPEN  YARDS  (FLOOR  PLAN). 


Feed  cars  are  used  to  convey  silage,  hay  and 
roots.  The  south  part  or  annex,  accommodates 
40  dairy  cows  and  heifers  of  various  sizes. 

CATTLE  BARN  WITH  OPEN  YARDS. 

Fig.  137  shows  a  plan  for  a  barn  175'  long 
and  91'  wide,  at  the  south  end  of  which  are 


three  silos  separated  from  the  barn  proper  by 
a  covered  alleyway  26'  wide.  On  both  sides  of 
this  barii  are  enclosed  open  yards  with  roofs 
all  the  way  round.  The  larger  of  the  two  yards 
is  176'  X 160'  and  the  smaller  one  190'  x  120'. 
There  are  about  36  cow  stalls  and  15  calf  stalls, 
besides  accommodations  for  about  20  horses. 
This  barn  has  a  stone  foundation  and  is  built  on 


FIG.     138.       A    CATTLE    FEEDING    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


87 


FEED.SHED 
12x72' 


WATER 


MANGER 


MANGER 


STORAGE 


HATCH 


HATCH 


SILAGE  CUTTER 


SHREDDER 


BIN 


GRAIN 


□ 
GRINDER 


CRIB 


a 


STORAGE  OVER 
ENGINE 


FIG.    139.       A    CATTLE    FEEDING    BARN     (FIRST    FLOOR). 


"-"manger  ^ 


FEEDALLEr 


,MANGER 


ENGINJEROOM 
lOxiZ'^ 


w 


FIG.    140.       A    CATTLE    FEEDING    BARN     (BASEMBNT    PLAN). 


OPEN  SHED 
IZU8' 


. -□ 


the  joist  frame  construction  plan.      (See  Fig.     structed  with  three  objects  in  view:     First,  the 
136.)  winter  feeding  of  young  cattle;  second,  the  use 

of  the  entire  corn  crop ;  third,  the  saving  of  all 

A  BARN  FOR  FEEDING  CATTLE.  manure. 

The  entire  basement  floor  is  cement,  as  is  the 

Illustrations  and  plans  shown  in  Figs.  138,     feedway  and  one  side  of  manger,  the  latter  being 

139  and  140  represent  a  good  feeding  barn  con-     raised  about  10"  above  the  floor  proper.     {Fig. 


88 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


140.)  The  space  around  the  wall  will  easily 
accommodate  60  weanling  calves.  A  manure 
spreader  can  be  driven  entirely  around  tlie 
space.  The  basement  walls  are  of  limestone 
construction  8'  high,  insuring  light  and  ventila- 
tion. A  large  arch  in  the  wall  accommodates  a 
water  tank  supplied  by  a  storage  tank  above 
ground.  An  engine  room  adjoins  the  basement 
and  is  equipped  with  a  12  H.  P.  gasoline 
engine.  A  small  cistern  just  outside  the  wall 
furnishes  never-freezing  water  for  cooling  the 
engine.  A  line  shaft  driven  by  this  engine 
operates  machinery  on  the  floor  above.  Pulleys 
can  be  shifted  on  shaft  and  positions  of  ma- 
chinery changed.     (See  Fig.  140.) 

The  superstructure  is  a  modified  type  of 
plank  frame  construction.  The  posts  are  14'  in 
length.  All  the  frame  is  of  hardwood;  the 
siding  of  No.  1  common  Arkansas  pine,  with 
shingles  of  Washington  cedar.  A  lean-to  shed 
at  the  east  end  of  the  barn  protects  the  entrances 
to  the  basement  and  provides  exercise  and  shel- 
ter for  cattle.  The  silo  is  at  the  west  end 
of  the  building ;  is  of  100  tons  capacity',  con- 
structed of  24'  hard  pine  staves,  set  on  brick 
well  laid  in  cement  mortar,  and  excavated  about 
6'  deep.  The  ba^'s  at  the  eastern  end  and  the 
space  above  the  machinery  accommodate  a  large 
quantity  of  shredded  fodder  or  hay. 

The  special  features  of  this  barn  are  the  ar- 
rangements for  taking  care  of  the  corn  crop. 
All  grinding,  shredding  and  filling  of  silo  is  done 
under  cover  and  all  feeding  indoors.  A  12' 
cemented  floor  shed  is  located  on  the  north  side 
of  building  (see  Fig.  138).  The  mangers  are 
2'  above  the  floor,  but  level  with  main  floor  of 
barn.  The  entire  cost  of  building  as  con- 
structed, including  cost  of  silo  and  machinery, 
was  $3,500. 

A  BREEDING  CATTLE  BARN. 

A  western  breeder  asking  for  a  design  for  a 
barn  for  beef  cattle  specifies  that  there  shall  be 
space  for  20  young  bulls,  20  heifers,  20  cows  and 
as  many  calves,  with  stalls  for  20  cattle  and  5 
bulls,  besides  some  box-stalls  and  four  double 
horse  stalls. 

The  general  scheme  sbow^n  in  Fig.  141  is  of  a 
very  long  narrow  barn  of  very  simple  con- 
struction, enclcsing  three  sides  of  an  open  court, 
and  thus  shutting  off  winds  and  making  an  ad- 
mirable place  for  cattle  to  be  out  of  doors  and  to 
sun  themselves  in  winter  time.  In  this  barn 
most  of  the  cattle  will  run  loose,  having  access 
also  to  small  yards.  They  will  be  fed  in  a  com- 
mon manger  from  a  feeding  alley,  and  every- 
thing may   be   fed  without   getting   in   among 


them,  if  this  is  desired.  The  building  is  22' 
wide,  with  18'  posts,  a  basement  8'  in  the  clear, 
through  which  one  may  drive  to  remove  manure. 
Tlie  floors  are  of  hard  clay  except  where  the 
stalls  come,  and  there  are  chutes  through  which 
hay  can  be  thrown  into  the  feed  alley  and  straw 
chutes  into  the  sheds.  There  should  be  sec- 
tions of  the  mow  left  unfilled  when  hay  is  put  in, 
and  these  sections  blown  full  of  straw  at  thresh- 


FEED  KOOM     : 


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IS-!!' 

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1 
1 

Boxe'-ig' 

B0X8<I8' 

;s  . 

BOX  I6'I8' 

Z  S                             i 

BOX  S'.IS' 

o  5               '»*'"SS'            : 

B0X8'-I8' 

mum 

U'KAf 

•■■-l I 

'•i 

^        J    VARO  FOB    20  HEIFERS    • 
S      I  44'.5»' 

i  In        ; 

J      i JfH- 

<y^     S       YARD 

^  V-i...._...j 


FIG.    141.       A    BREEDING    CATTLE    BARN    (ARRANGEMENT). 

ing  time.  The  mow  is  calculated  to  hold  ample 
hay  and  straw  for  caring  for  all  the  animals 
that  should  be  beneath  it,  and  with  little  addi- 
tional room.  Provide  for  little  glass  in  the  left 
wing,  since  the  sides  of  the  sheds  next  the  court 
would  be  nearly  all  open  to  the  air  at  all  times 
(strong  sliding  doors  might  be  provided,  if  they 
would  be  left  open),  but  Avhere  the  stalls  come 
much  provision  should  be  made  for  light  and 
ventilation  by  giving  almost  a  continuous  row  of 
windows  on  the  south  side,  hinging  on  the  bot- 
tom and  opening  inwardly.  Ventilation  will  be 
through  the  hay  chutes  and  out  through  ventila- 
tors in  the  roof. 

Hay  will  be  taken  in  in  four  places — a  tem- 
porary transverse  driveway  through  the  left  wing, 
at  each  end  of  the  central  part  and  at  the  end 
of  the  right  wing.     The  box-stalls  may  some- 


I 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


89 


times  be  subdivided,  making  a  few  stalls  8'x9', 
thus  increasing  the  capacity.  Gates  will  divide 
them.  The  plan  calls  for  about  62,000  feet  of 
lumber  and  the  barn  should  be  completed  for 
$2,500  to  $3,000. 

AN  ENGLISH  BULL  BARN. 

Figs.  142  and  143  show  a  bull  barn  used  by 
George  Taylor  in  England. 

It  is  finished  in  a  substantial  English  man- 
ner, with  concrete  floors  and  wood  all  creosoted 
and  some  of  it  pitched.  Each  bull  has  a  snug 
sleeping  apartment,  a  small  open  yard  where  he 
can  take  the  sun,  and  a  covered  place  over  his 
manger.  Very  strong  gates  l)oarded  tight  divide 
the  pens  and  when  these  gates  are  opened  and 
swung  half  way  around  they  fasten  the  bulls 
each  one  in  his  own  sleeping  pen,  while  a  cart 


FIG.     142.       AX    ENGLISH    BULL    BARN     ( CROSS-SECTIOX ) . 


FIG.     143.       AN    ENGLISH    BULL    BARN     (FLOOR    PLAN). 

can  go  through  to  clean  the  whole  thing  out. 
In  feeding  one  can  put  the  feed  into  the  man- 
gers from  outside.  Water  should  be  with- 
in  the   stalls,   especially  in   mild  and  summer 


weather.  The  roof  over  the  manger  is  of  gal- 
vanized corrugated  iron;  the  other  roof  is  of 
sJate  with  a  capacious  eaves-trough. 

A  CATTLE  SALE  PAVILION. 

Designed  for  use  as  a  barn  in  which  to  hold 
auction  sales  of  pure-bred  beef  cattle,  this  build- 
ing  (see  Fig.  144)   seats  600  people  {Fig.  145) 


OCTAGONAL   SALE  BARN 

FIG.     144.       A    CATTLE    SALE    PAVILION     (ELEVATION). 


FIG.    145.       A    CATTLE    SALE   PAVILION     (FIRST    FLOOR). 

and  has  stalls  for  30  cattle  {146).  As  it  is 
not  meant  regularly  to  accommodate  cattle  no 
provision  is  made  for  the  storage  of  hay  or 
grain,  which  will  be  received  at  the  barn  in  small 
amounts,  the  hay  in  bales,  and  stored  tempo- 
raril}^  in  the  passage.  The  seats  are  over  the 
cattle  stalls  and  are  arranged  in  a  regular  in- 
cline, giving  every  visitor  a  good  view  of  the 
sale-ring,  which  is  24'  in  diameter.  The  build- 
ing is  25'  long  on  each  side,  of  octagon  shape, 
and  16'  high  at  the  eaves.     Light  to  the  sale- 


90 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ring  is  afforded  by  skylights  in  the  roof.  The 
stalls  are  well  lighted  by  two  windows  in  each 
side.  The  building  is  very  economical  of  mate- 
rial and  space  and  may  be  built  at  very  mod- 
erate expense,  or  if  desired  made  quite  elabor- 
ate. 


FIG.     146.        A    CATTLE    SALE    PAVILION     (SECOND    FLOOR). 

A  CATTLE  SALE  BARN. 

The  cattle  sale  barn  shown  in  Fig.  147  cost 
about  $1,000.  It  was  built  by  Stow  &  Ginrich, 
proprietors  of  the  Clover  Wave  Hereford  Farm 
in  Iowa.     This  barn  is  60'  in  diameter  and  50' 


Fia.     147.       A    CATTLE    SALE    BARN     (ELEVATION). 

high.  The  sills  are  made  of  board  1"  x  6", 
green  native  lumber,  six  boards  thick,  placed  on 
edge  on  the  foundation,  making  a  sill  6"  x  6". 
The  studding  is  of  pine  2"  x  6"  and  16'  long. 


The  girders  are  1"  x  4"  native  lumber  bent 
around  the  outside  of  the  studding.  The  boards 
are  double  and  put  on  so  as  to  break  joints.  This 
makes  a  2"  x  4"  girder.  The  plates  are  made 
of  1"  X  6"  in  the  same  manner ;  the  rafters  are 
of  pine  2"  x  6"  and  18'  long  to  purlin  plate, 
which  is  made  of  1"  x  6"  native  lumber.  The 
upper  rafters  are  same  length,  reaching  up  to 
the  top  plate  which  forms  the  base  of  the  cupola. 
The  cupola  has  2"  x  4"  studding  6'  long  and  at 
the  top  is  another  plate  made  of  native  lumber 
1"  X  4".  The  siding  is  pine  8"  board ;  the 
sheathing  is  1"  x  3"  native  lumber  except  on 
cupola,  which  is  1"  x  2",  so  as  to  bend  more 
easily.  About  35,000  shingles  were  required  to 
cover  it.    The  doors  are  hung  on  rollers  and  are 


^-(ramce:  tor  stoc,^ 
V  — I  ^  , — 


^^OW  CNTRAH^^ 


FIG.  148.   A  CATTLE  SALE  BARN  (FLOOR  PLAN). 

curved  the  same  as  the  side  of  the  barn.  The 
roof  is  cone-shaped  and  is  self-supporting.  The 
hay  capacity  of  the  mow  is  150  tons  and  the 
ground  floor  will  accommodate  32  head  of  large 
cattle.  In  the  center  of  the  barn  is  a  sale-ring 
30'  in  diameter  and  around  the  side  of  the  build- 
ing are  20  large  stalls. 

Fig.  148  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  ground 
floor.  The  entrance  for  stock  is  6'  wide  and  the 
front  entrance  4'  wide.  The  aisle  is  4'  wide. 
Gates  opening  into  the  stalls  are  4'  wide  and  are 
made  to  fasten  across  the  aisle  when  open  for 
convenience  in  handling  stock.  There  are  12 
feed  boxes  around  the  circle  in  the  center  for  that 
number  of  large  cattle,  or  quite  a  number  of 
calves  could  be  put  in  loose. 


CATTLE  BARNS. 


r 


91 


A  SIMALL  CATTLE  BARN. 

Fig.  149  shows  a  cattle  barn  and  shed  adjoin- 
ing that  has  been  used  for  five  years  with  satis- 
factory results  in  raising  and  fattening  young 


OPEN   SHEO 


CItAIN 
BIN 


GRAIN 
BIN 


HAY  MOW 


CO«V   STALLS 


UOD^^ 


FIG.    149.       A    SMALL   CATTLE    BAHN     (.FLOOR    PLAN). 


beef.  The  main  barn  is  60x56'  and  22'  to  the 
eaves,  which  gives  ample  loft  room  over  the  sheds 
in  which  hay  is  stored  and  the  center  mow 
blown  full  of  straw.  The  box  and  milch  cow- 
stalls  have  plenty  of  sunlight  and  are  closed  but 
few  days  in  the  year.  About  25  cows  are  kept 
for  raising  calves;  they  have  the  protection  of 
the  open  shed  with  mangers  in  which  is  fed 
roughage,  usually  corn  fodder,  while  their 
calves  get  through  a  creep  into  the  shed  of  the 
main  barn,  where  they  are  fed  clover  hay,  oats, 
bran  and  a  little  chopped  corn  and  oilmeal,  which 
they  learn  to  eat  long  before  they  are  weaned. 
Their  grain  is  fed  in  troughs  in  an  open  yard. 
A  large  gate  between  box-stall  and  shed  admits 
of  driving  the  entire  length  of  the  barn,  whicli 
makes  hauling  out  the  manure  a  simple  matter. 


H0R5E  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


On  the  farm  a  general  style  and  principle  may 
be  employed  in  building  housing  for  horses  and 
cattle.  Preceding  pages  in  this  work  may  be  taken 
as  suggesting  horse  shelter  for  many  farms, 
but  when  it  comes  to  building  stables  exclusively 
designed  for  horses  special  plans  must  be  fol- 
lowed. The  ceaseless  activity  of  the  horse,  young 
and  old,  must  be  reckoned  with  from  first  to  last, 
and  this  necessitates  a  solidity  of  structure  in 
detail  which  need  not  be  observed  in  the  erection 
of  ordinary  farm  buildings. 

A  fairly  large  barn  is  desirable  on  account  of 
the  economy  of  construction  involved.  Box-stalls 
must  be  provided  for  stallions  and  for  mares  and 
foals.  The  walls  of  every  box  should  be  made 
so  that  they  slope  inward  for  the  first  four  feet 
of  their  height,  being  at  the  ground  point  one 
foot  inside  the  perpendicular  of  the  wall.  This 
prevents  a  horse  from  being  cast  or  rubbing  his 
tail  or  bruising  his  hocks.  Doors  from  each  box 
should  open  to  the  outside.  This  insures  a  ready 
egress  for  the  animals  in  case  of  fire  and  an  easy 
way  to  clean  out  the  boxes  day  by  day.  Once  the 
manure  is  thrown  on  the  outside  it  may  be  drawn 
away  and  spread  on  the  grasslands  or  fields  at 
once  and  its  utmost  benefit  secured  to  the  farm. 
A  gravel  or  stone  road  should  be  laid  entirely 
around  a  stable  with  these  outside  doors.  The 
inside  space  of  a  large  barn  must  necessarily  con- 
tain boxes  which  cannot  open  to  the  outside. 
These  should  communicate  by  large  doors  with 
broad  alleyways. 

Convenient  space  should  always  be  reserved  on 


the  ground  floor  for  a  feed-mixing  room  and  hay 
may  be  delivered  to  the  manger  in  each  box  di- 
rectly by  chutes  or  to  convenient  spots  in  the 
alleyways.  If  each  box  is  equipped  with  a  chute 
a  great  waste  of  hay  is  almost  certain,  as  the  ten- 
dency will  be  to  save  time  and  work  by  filling 
the  chute  full  and  allowing  the  horse  to  stand  to 
hay  all  the  time.  This  is  one  of  the  most  costly 
and  most  unnecessary  wastes  on  the  American 
farm. 

Loft  room  should  be  very  ample.  To  this  end 
the  open  form  of  construction  in  the  roof  has 
been  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory.  Large 
bins  for  keeping  grain  and  bran  should  also  be 
provided  as  nearly  rat-proof  as  possible  and  con- 
nected with  the  feed  room  below  by  spouts.  In 
the  comb  of  the  roof  in  large  barns  there  should 
be  a  complete  system  of  tracks  for  hay  forks  or 
slings,  admitting  of  the  filling  of  the  loft  from 
each  end. 

Partitions  between  box-stalls  for  the  first  five 
or  six  feet  from  the  ground  upward  must  be  very 
strong  and  substantial.  Above  this,  iron  rods  y^" 
thick  or  heavy  wire  netting  should  be  used. 
Horses  love  company,  and  if  closely  confined  but 
unable  to  see  one  another  they  are  likely  to  get 
restless  and  contract  the  bad  habit  of  pawing. 
These  iron  rods  should  be  set  top  and  bottom  in 
oak  or  other  hardwood  timber  2"  x  4"  in  size  and 
the  edges  should  always  be  rounded  off  with  tlie 
plane.  It  seems  likely  that  partitions  of  concrete 
M'ill  come  into  great  favor.  For  the  mangers  iroii 
is  preferred  by  some  and  wood  by  others,  but 


92 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


wlieu  wood  is  used  it  must  be  very  hard  wood. 
The  constant  biting  and  gnawing  to  which  most 
wooden  mangers  are  subjected,  chiefly  by  colts, 
make  little  impression  on  hard  wood.  Some 
prefer  to  leave  nothing  in  the  box  at  all  on  which 
the  horse  may  fix  his  teeth.  A  portable  feed  box, 
placed  inside  the  door  and  removed  when  the 
feed  is  finished,  and  hay  fed  on  the  floor  are 
preferred  by  many  of  the  best  breeders  and 
horsemen  of  the  day,  but  the  feeding  of  long 
hay  on  the  floor  is  wasteful.  It  is  better  to  pro- 
vide a  manger  bound  with  tin  or  sheet  iron  to 
prevent  gnawing.  The  best  flooring  for  the  boxes 
is  a  hard  clay. 

Light  and  air  are  essential  in  all  horse  barns. 
AVindows  should  be  easily  opened  and  each  one 
should  be  fitted  with  a  wire  screen  so  that  in 
summer  the  flies  may  be  kept  out.  Doors  to  the 
outside  should  be  in  two  parts,  the  lower  half 
about  5'  high  and  the  upper  smaller,  its  place  to 
be  taken  in  hot  weather  by  strong  wire  screen 
netting.  This  must  be  protected  by  a  framework 
of  hardwood  bars.  With  windows  and  doors  thus 
opened  and  screened  the  horses  will  be  cool  and 
comfortable  as  possible  in  hot  weather.  Electric- 
ally driven  fans  of  course  may  be  installed,  but 
they  are  not  common. 

If  the  design  is  to  build  a  barn  which  may 
be  used  partially  for  breeding  horses  and  also 
for  driving  horses,  a  series  of  standing  stalls 
should  be  arranged.  These  may  be  floored  with 
pine  or  other  planks  for  two-thirds  of  their 
length,  allowing  the  fore  feet  to  rest  on  a  clay 
floor.  A  well-built  harness  room  fitted  with  cases 
in  which  the  leather  goods  may  be  shut  up  air- 
tight is  desired.  The  ammonia  arising  from  the 
stables  where  horses  are  kept  is  very  destructive 
both  to  leather  and  the  varnish  on  carriages.  For 
this  reason  the  carriage  house  should  be  shut  off 
from  the  section  in  which  the  horses  are  kept. 
Glass  doors  should  be  used  in  the  harness  cases 
in  order  that  the  condition  of  the  leather  may 
be  readily  noted. 

Ventilation  is  one  of  the  essentials  in  a  stable. 
There  must  be  airshafts  from  the  lower  story 
leading  to  slatted  cupolas  on  the  comb  of  the 
roof.  If  reasonable  amount  of  attention  is 
paid  to  the  location  of  the  windows  and  doors 
there  need  not  be  any  trouble  as  to  the  supply 
of  necessary  fresh  air,  but  ample  shafts  to  carry 
off  the  heated  foul  air  must  be  provided. 

Generally  it  is  well  to  devote  barns  to  one  dis- 
tinct use  or  another  but  very  satisfactory  com- 
posite structures  may  be  built.  If  there  are 
several  stallions,  usually  the  most  valuable  ani- 
mals on  the  farm  to  be  cared  for,  it  is  best  to 
give  them  a  stable  by  themselves,  and  in  such  a 
case,  more  than  in  any  other,  doors  should  open 
to  the  outside.    Fire  is  an  ever-present  possibility 


and  the  horse  is  the  most  stupid  of  all  the  do- 
mestic animals  when  fire  is  to  be  fought.  The 
utmost  celerity  of  action  is  necessary,  and  any 
plan  of  construction  which  does  not  coincide  with 
that  is  faulty. 

The  method  of  watering  is  rather  unimportant 
so  long  as  the  water  is  pure.  Perhaps  as  good  a 
way  as  any  to  water  horses  is  the  old-fashioned 
one  of  carrying  it  to  them  in  buckets.  A  hydrant 
in  the  barn  or  a  convenient  pump  is  preferred 
by  many  owners  to  a  system  of  water  troughs 
in  the  stalls  which  must  be  cleansed  daily  or 
become  foul  from  the  dropping  of  feed  in  them. 
A  watering  trough  of  cement,  galvanized  iron  or 
wood,  conveniently  placed  in  the  stable  yard  or 
inside  the  stable,  is  perhaps  as  economical  of 
time  and  labor  as  the  individual  troughs  in  each 
stall,  when  the  trouble  of  keeping  the  latter  clean 
is  considered.  Fresh  cool  water  in  the  summer 
and  tempered  water  in  the  winter  add  much  to 
the  comfort  and  thrift  of  the  horse.  Water  fresh 
from  a  well  or  hydrant  meets  both  conditions. 
When  horses  are  watered  from  an  outside  trough 
in  winter  a  tank  heater  is  necessary  to  keep  it 
free  from  ice.  In  all  cases  the  water  should  be 
close  at  hand. 

THE  STABLING  AT  OAKLAWN  FARM. 

When  horses  were  first  kept  at  Oaklawn  40 
years  ago  the  big  basement  barn  was  the  main 
structure  on  the  premises  made  so  famous  by  the 
late  Mark  W.  Dunham,  DuPage  Co.,  111.  It  is 
still  a  central  figure.  Observe  this  barn  in  the 
diagram  showing  the  stabling  on  this  farm. 
There  are  three  stories  in  it — the  stone  base- 
ment filled  with  box-stalls  only,  the  floor  or 
"show  barn"  on  the  ground  level,  also  filled  with 
box-stalls,  and  the  loft  above  for  the  storage  of 
hay  and  grain.  This  barn  stretches  its  length 
east  and  west.  The  barn  where  the  driving 
horses  are  kept  adjoins  it  on  the  west,  but  that 
in  its  width  extends  some  12'  or  more  to  the 
southward,  which  cannot  be  seen  in  the  diagram. 
Eoom  is  provided  in  single  stalls  on  the  upper 
ground  level  for  12  driving  horses.  Still  to  the 
west  of  this  driving  barn  is  the  coach  house 
with  room  for  20  vehicles  of  all  sizes  from  the 
barouche  to  the  runabout  or  single  speeding 
buggy.  Above  the  driving  horse  barn  and  the 
coach  house  are  the  lofts  where  the  seedcorn  and 
other  similar  supplies  are  stored  in  winter — a 
ure  being  kept  in  the  coach  house  in  cold  weather. 
Below  these  two  divisions  are  the  root  cellars, 
solid  stone-walled  pits  where  hundreds  of  tons 
of  carrots,  sugar  beets  and  mangels  are  stored 
each  fall  for  the  winter  consumption  of  the  600 
or  more  horses,  young  and  old,  on  the  farm. 

Observe  now  the  convenience  with  which  the 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


93 


inaiiure  is  handled  from  these  two  barns.  The 
ground  level  floor  contains  the  12  drivers  and 
more  stallions  in  boxes  in  the  show  barn.  The 
manure  is  thrust  from  properly  covered  aper- 
tures in  the  walls  to  the  ground  below  on  the 
level  of  the  floor  of  the  basement  and  is  there 
joined  by  the  manure  from  the  boxes  therein. 
It  is  all  thrown  in  piles  on  a  stone  causeway  and 
removed  daily  by  a  teamster  whose  sole  duty  it 
is  in  and  out  of  season  to  keep  this  litter  spread 
out  on  the  grasslands. 

Adjoining  the  root  cellars  on  the  lower  level 
and  stretching  at  riglit  angles  to  the  basement 
come  the  sheds^-one-story  structures — running 
first  from  the  root  cellar  south,  then  east  and 
then  north  to  meet  the  ' '  running  shed, ' '  a  vaulted 
structure  300'  long  by  120'  wide  used  for  show- 
ing stallions  to  customers  in  cold  or  stormy 
weather.  This  running  shed  stretches  its  length 
east  and  west  and  is  advantageously  used  in  sum- 
mer for  the  storage  of  grain  and  hay,  loads  of 
sheaf  grain  or  hay  over  night,  or  corn  fodder  in 


thrown  in  pil(>s  at  the  doors  each  day  and  re- 
moved almost  as  soon  as  thrown  out.  Above  all 
these  boxes  are  lofts  for  tlie  storage  of  hay  and 
grain. 

Barn  No.  5  is  used  altogether  for  the  housing 
of  colts.  It  stretches  again  east  and  west  and 
along  its  north  side  there  is  an  alleyway  from 
which  feed  may  be  placed  in  the  mangers.  The 
boxes  in  this  very  large  stable  are  spacious  and 
hold  from  three  to  ten  foals  or  yearlings,  and  100 
head  may  safely  be  housed  in  it.  Spouts  bring 
oats  from  large  bins  in  the  loft  to  a  feed  room 
in  the  extreme  west  end  of  the  building  and 
hay  is  run  down  convenient  chutes  at  intervals 
throughout  its  length.  No.  5  and  the  running 
shed  terminate  about  on  a  line  at  their  eastern- 
most extremities.  A  court  is  formed  within  the 
two,  the  west  end  being  encompassed  by  the  row 
of  boxes,  and  the  exercising  of  horses  may  be 
done  in  this  court  at  any  time. 

The  big  barn  farthest  east  is  No.  6.  It  is  the 
largest  and  best  barn  in  DuPage  county  that  is 


BLACKSlfllTH 


g        T         C 
BA'RN 


-B- 


o'^l^      0 


-Eh 


-Q- 


5HEDS 


RUNNING 

-O H Q- 


5HED 


J^ORTH 


No     5    ^ 


BOXES 
0      0     0     0 


BARN 


^ — 


n 

ENGINE 


Q 


B0XE5 


RN 


€) 


CD 


ClBARN^ 


■C 


OFFICE 


ROAD 


'         GRASS 

@       ©      ( 
PLOT 


CRA55 


ROAD 


€^ 


FIG.     150.  GENEKAI.    ARRANGEMENT    OF     STABLES     AT     OAKLAWN. 


the  fall,  the  only  requisite  being  that  it  shall  be 
free  for  showing  and  exercising  in  the  winter 
selling  season. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  this  big  shed  and  run- 
ning northward  is  a  row  of  box-stalls,  terminat- 
ing in  a  double-stalled  barn  near  the  hedge,  as 
marked  in  plat.  Fig.  150,  About  half-way  be- 
tween the  running  shed  and  the  terminal  barn 
as  here  described  a  row  of  stallion  boxes  runs 
eastward  to  the  west  line  of  Barn  No.  5.  There 
are  double  boxes  in  this  row,  the  doors  facing 
north    and   south.      The   manure   from   these   is 


devoted  exclusively  to  the  keeping  of  commercial 
horses.  It  is  112'  long,  62'  wide  and  54'  high 
from  sill  to  peak  of  roof,  the  posts  being  28' 
high.  Storage  capacity  for  about  400  tons  loose 
hay  is  afforded.  Main  timbers  are  10"  x  12" 
and  32'  long.  In  it  on  the  ground  floor  there 
are  box-stalls  only  with  accommodations  for 
something  like  28  stallions.  All  but  a  very  few 
of  the  stalls  open  to  the  outside  and  the  few  in 
the  center  have  access  to  the  outside  by  broad 
alleyways.  The  manure  here  is  thrown  to  the 
outside  where  hard  gravel  roads  have  been  made 


94 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


and,  as  in  all  other  barns,  is  removed  each  day 
or  twice  a  day  as  the  case  may  be,  to  be  spread 
at  once  on  the  land  most  requiring  it.  The  enor- 
mous crops  of  hay  grown  and  fed  at  Oaklawn 
and  the  excellence  of  the  grain  crops  on  this 
farm  prove  the  efficacy  of  this  method  of  utilizing 
the  vast  quantities  oi^  horse  manure  which  must 
be  handled  each  season.  In  addition,  after  the 
fertilizing  elements  have  had  due  opportunity  to 
be  dissolved  and  sink  into  the  earth,  the  un- 
rotted  straw  is  carefully  raked  up  again  v/hen 
dry  and  carted  back  to  the  barns,  where  it  is 
stacked  and  made  to  do  duty  as  bedding  once 
more. 

In  the  second  story  of  No.  6  is  a  vast  amount 
of  hay  and  grain  storage,  that  portion  of  the 
barn  having  been  built  with  an  open  center  with 
a  view  of  affording  the  utmost  room  for  this 
purpose.  Large  storage  of  oats  and  bran  is  also 
provided,  the  necessary  bags  of  these  products 
being  swung  to  their  place  by  means  of  an  in- 
genious system  of  ropes  and  pulleys  which  en- 
ables the  work  to  be  easily  and  (juickly  done  by 


purest  water,  which  is  pumped  by  the  engine  to 
a  reservoir  back  of  Oaklawn  House  on  the  highest 
part  of  the  farm.  From  there  the  water  is  dis- 
tributed to  every  barn  and  field  by  means  of 
pipes  sunk  6'  to  8'  in  the  ground.  The  supply 
is  never-failing,  but  is  reinforced  by  a  multi- 
plicity of  windmills  and  wells  in  the  pastures 
somewhat  remote  from  the  main  engine.  An- 
other well,  fitted  with  a  powerful  windmill,  is 
placed  at  the  southeast  corner  of  the  show  barn, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Fig.  150,  to  aid  in 
maintaining  a  full  supply  in  times  of  drouth. 
In  addition  to  supplying  the  stable  and  fields 
with  water  the  engine  and  main  well  are  also 
made  to  supply  Oaklawn  House  and  other  smaller 
dwellings  on  the  farm. 

Such  is  the  Oaklawn  plant.  Its  convenience 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used  is  beyond 
criticism.  The  small  barn,  where  the  show  and 
breeding  horses  are  kept  for  the  most  part,  is 
situated  by  itself  and  about  half  way  from  the 
double-stalled  barn  to  No.  5.  It  extends  north 
and  south  nearly  to  the  main  road  and  is  in  itself 


FIG.    151.       BAEN    FOR   LIGHT    HORSES     (FRONT   ELEVATION). 


horse  power.  Similarly  the  hay  floor  is  filled 
from  the  wagons  by  means  of  slings,  harpoons 
and  grip  forks,  the  tracks  being  laid  in  the  apex 
of  the  roof  with  the  object  of  filling  the  loft 
from  either  or  both  ends,  as  the  case  may  be,  and 
at  the  same  time  from  both  if  desired.  It  may 
be  said  that  this  barn  was  built  from  plans  ap- 
proved beforehand  by  the  insurance  companies 
with  which  the  risk  was  placed. 

Directly  south  of  about  the  middle  of  the  run- 
ning shed  and  well  down  the  hill  is  the  black- 
smith shop,  safely  removed  from  both  that  shed 
and  the  single  story  sheds  which  run  north  and 
south  to  meet  it  at  its  westernmost  end.  In  the 
middle  of  the  quadrangle  formed  by  the  root 
cellars,  the  single  story  sheds  and  the  basement 
barn  stands  the  engine  which  pumps  the  water 
for  the  entire  farm,  boils  feed,  grinds  grain, 
shreds  fodder,  saws  wood  and  the  like. 

In  each  barn  there  are  several  hydrants.  The 
well  which  is  driven  in  the  center  of  the  quad- 
rangle  described  grants  an  abundance  of  the 


a  model  for  its  uses.  It  has  limited  hay  storage 
above  the  boxes  and  plenty  of  room  for  grain, 
while  the  appliances  for  mixing  feed  on  the  main 
floor  are  thoroughly  modern. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  all  the  other  barns. 
The  object  has  been  in  arranging  the  entire  plant 
to  make  the  steps  taken  by  the  grooms  the  fewest 
possible  under  the  circumstances.  The  hay  may 
be  dropped  just  where  wanted  and  the  grain 
spouted  to  its  place  for  mixing.  The  walls  of 
the  box-stalls  are  all  fitted  with  small  sliding 
doors  opening  into  the  mangers  so  that  the 
grooms  need  not  enter  the  boxes  when  feeding 
the  horses  and  most  of  the  boxes  are  also  fitted 
with  water  troughs  into  which  a  supply  of  water 
may  be  turned  at  will  or  in  which  one  may  be 
retained  permanently  by  means  of  ball  and  float 
valves.  The  buildings  are  all  painted  a  dark  rich 
red,  the  trimmings  being  white.  The  mares  and 
foals  are  kept  on  other  parts  of  the  farm  which 
cannot  be  seen  in  the  engraving  to  which  this 
refers. 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLE g. 


95 


BARN  FOR  LIGHT  HORSES. 

A  very  complete  and  convenient  horse  barn  was 
built  several  years  ago  in  Venango  Co.,  Penn- 
sylvania, for  the  stabling  of  light  horses.  The 
diagrams  {Figs.  151  and  152)  afford  a  capital 
idea  of  the  front  elevation  and  the  ground  plan 
of  the  structure,  which  is  very  handsome  in  its 
architecture,  economical  in  its  construction  and 
admirable  in  its  arrangement. 

The  dimensions  and  capacity  appear  in  figures 
on  the  diagrams.  The  grooms  have  very  com- 
fortable steam-heated  quarters  in  the  second 
story,  over  the  harness  and  wash  rooms,  and 
there  is  ample  reserve  room  over  the  left  wing 
of  the  front  of  the  barn.  A  feature  not  shown 
in  the  diagram  is  the  half-story  over  the  entire 
circk  of  boxes,  which  affords  storage  for  a  large 
quantity  of  hay  that  can  be  mowed  away  and 


pitched  out  at  various*  convenient  points.  Most 
of  the  eastern  light  horse  breeding  establish- 
ments are  equipped  either  with  stables  in  which 
boxes  are  arranged  around  a  big  covered  area  or 
else  with  large  riding  or  training  schools,  in  both 
of  which  large  and  costly  roofs  are  needed.  Pro- 
vision has  been  made  in  this  case  for  such  a 
training  school  without  the  expense  of  the  roof 
by  allowing  the  roof  of  the  boxes  to  project  over 
the  inner  circular  court  about  12',  thus  af- 
fording a  covered  track  under  shelter  the  entire 
distance  around  without  a  single  post.  The  drain- 
pipes from  the  eaves  are  hinged,  so  that  they 
may  be  hooked  up  to  the  inner  side  of  the  roof 
out  of  the  way,  thus  giving  an  arena  119'  in 
diameter,  with  12'  under  cover  all  around  the 
outer  circle.  The  inner  circle  on  the  diagram 
is  an  imaginary  line,  designed  to  show  the  dis- 
tance that  the  roof  projects  over  the  court.    The 


\ 


PIG.     152.     BARN    FOR    LIGHT    HORSES     (GROUND    PLAN). 


96 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


entire  court  is  laid  in  rolled  cinders  and  has  a 
slight  fall  toward  the  center  for  drainage.  All 
doors  opening  into  it  may  be  tightly  closed,  thus 
affording  as  fine  a  training  and  exercising  arena 
as  could  be  desired  in  clear  weather,  while  it 
must  be  a  very  stormy  day  that  will  interfere 
with  work  on  the  12'  track  under  shelter. 
Twenty-eight  box-stalls,  each  10x12',  give  luxuri- 
ous quarters  to  the  horses. 


great  amount  of  damage  to  the  animals  contained 
therein.  On  one  side  of  the  main  barn  are  open 
stalls  for  the  coach  horses.  In  addition  to  the 
doors  to  the  box-stalls  from  the  interior  are  small 
windows  and  on  the  exterior  of  the  stalls  are 
windows  placed  well  up.  They  afford  plenty  of 
light  while'  not  allowing  the  stallions  a  view  of 
what  is  going  on  outside. 

In  the  center  of  the  stallion  barn  are  large 


FIG.     153.      COACH    AND    STALLION    BARN     (INTERIOR). 


A  COACH  AND  STALLION  BARN. 

J.  B.  Haggin's  combination  coach  and  stallion 
barn  at  Elmendorf  Farm  in  Kentucky  is  in  keep- 
ing with  the  sul)stantial  buildings  at  that  great 
breeding  establishment.  It  is  constructed  of 
stone  and  brick,  the  upper  part  of  the  building 
being  of  the  latter  material,  while  over  all  is  a 
tile  roof,  making  the  structure  as  nearly  fire- 
proof as  it  is  possible  to  make  such  a  building. 
{See  Fig.  153.) 

]\Ir.  Haggin  had  in  mind  the  great  value  of  his 
stallions  when  he  ordered  the  barn  built.  As  a 
stallion  barn  it  is  a  fairly  large  structure,  the 
main  barn  having  two  wings,  one  on  each  side. 
In  both  the  main  structure  and  the  wings  are 
box-stalls  for  the  coach  horses  and  valuable  stal- 
lions which  form  the  nucleus  of  his  Thor- 
oughbred stud.  The  partitions  between  the  box- 
stalls  and  the  main  barn  are  of  brick  {Fig.  153) 
so  that  no  ordinary  fire  would  be  able  to  do  any 


ventilators,  while  the  wings  are  ventilated  with 
circular  ventilators  made  of  galvanized  iron.  In 
the  upper  barn  is  room  for  the  feed,  hay  and 
grain. 

As  a  model  of  fireproof  construction  the  Hag- 
gin  coach  and  stallion  barn  is  considered  about 
the  best  around  Lexington,  Ky. 

A  MONTANA  HORSE  BARN. 

The  dimensions  of  this  barn,  shown  in  Fig. 
154,  are  36'x84';  posts  are  ]2'  apart;  two  horses 
are  put  in  a  stall ;  the  stalls  are  12'  wide,  facing 
the  sides  of  the  barn.  There  are  several  advan- 
tages in  this  arrangement :  horses  are  easily  put 
in  and  taken  out,  easily  groomed,  and  harness 
may  be  hung  on  hooks  suspended  by  pulleys 
rigiit  behind  them  and  drawn  up  out  of  the  way. 
Besides  with  such  wide  stalls  it  is  easy  to  put 
feed  in  their  mangers  even  when  the  horses  are 
in  place.    The  transverse  driveway  is  to  be  used 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


97 


only  when  hay  is  put  in;  at  other  times  it  is 
closed  with  swinging  partitions  and  made  into 
two  box-stalls,  which  are  very  useful  in  any 
stable.  This  stable  may  be  equipped  with  an 
overhead  track  and  carrier  for  taking  out  the 
manure.  In  the  mow  floor  there  should  be  bins 
for  oats  or  corn,  to  be  spouted  down  beside  the 


BoxdTAa 


•DoialcStau,    Douilcstall 


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FIG.    154.       A    MONTANA    H  >RSE    BARN     (GROUND    PLAN). 

posts,  and  filled  by  a  horse-hoist  from  the  central 
driveway.  The  frame  is  all  joist,  with  a  self- 
supporting  curb  roof. 

xV  MODERN  STALLION  BARN. 

Plans  for  an  admirable  barn  (Fig.  155)  for 
stallions  recently  built  in  northern  Illinois  fol- 
low : 

The  main  barn  has  18'  studding.  The  lower 
story  is  9'  high,  covered  outside  with  drop-siding, 
galvanized  iron,  molded  gutters,  red  cedar  sliin- 
gles.  lined  throughout — the  lower  414'  with  2"  x 
12"  dressed  lumber,  above  4I/2'  with  matched 
fencing.  Partitions  between  stalls  are  7'  high, 
the  lower  4i/o'  of  2"  x  10"  oak,  above  21/0'  of  2" 
X  12"  hemlock.  Alley  partitions  are  6'  high  of 
2"  X  12"  hemlock ;  wall  studding  2"  x  6" ;  floor 
joists  2"  X  12" ;  rafters  2"  x  8" ;  supporting  tim- 
bers 4"  X  6"  and  6"  x  6".  Stall  doors  are  of  1" 
X  6"  matched  fencing  and  double.  The  wing  is 
one  story  high,  36'  x  110';  it  has  a  row  of  box- 
stalls  opening  into  the  exercising  room.  The  lat- 
ter is  lighted  by  windows  3'  high,  set  on  upper 


end  of  rafters  over  box-stalls  and  under  the 
upper  end  of  rafters  over  exercising  room,  giving 
perfect  light  and  ventilation.    An  office  and  car- 


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FTO.    155.      MODERN    STALLION    BARN     (FLOOR    PLAN). 


98 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


riage  room  are  in  main  building ;  men 's  sleeping 
room  over  the  office.  The  stable  was  built  at  a 
cost  of  about  $2,600. 

A  HORSE  BARN  WITHOUT  CROSS  TIES. 

A  horse  barn  that  possesses  many  excellent 
features,  among  them  being  the  minimum  of 
cost  for  accommodations  secured,  economy  of 
space,  convenience  and  healthfulness  for  the 
occupants,  is  built  either  with  joist  or  solid- 
timber  frame  (Fig.  156),  without  cross  ties  or 
even  purlin  plates.     The  roof  is  self-supporting, 


CNO    ELCVATION  Or   FRAME 
FIG.    156.       HORSE   BARN    WITHOUT    CROSS-TIES. 


each  rafter  being  so  spliced  to  the  one  above  as 
to  make  it  virtually  one  piece  and  the  half  of  an 
arch.  This  arrangement  gives  ample  strength  to 
the  roof. 

In  lieu  of  cross  ties  there  are  %"  iron  rods 
running  from  the  plates  at  the  posts  to  the  joist- 
bearers  below.  These  keep  the  sides  from  spread- 
ing. The  rafters  are  2"  x  6"  and  join  at  the  ends 
by  butting  together.  Below  the  rafters  there  is 
a  triangular  piece  of  oak  about  2'  long  cut  to  fit 
in  the  angle.  This  is  firmly  nailed.  On  each 
side  of  the  joist  there  is  now  added  a  board  of 
some  tough  wood,  1"  x  12",  which  also  is  nailed 
firmly  in  place.  At  the  peak  there  is  the  collar 
beam  1"  x  6",  which  adds  materially  to  the  ri- 
gidity of  the  frame.  The  hay  rack  is  put  on 
this  collar-beam.  No  floor  is  used  nor  sills,  the 
posts  resting  directly  on  stone. 

The  floor  is  of  hard  earth.  The  stalls  are 
double,  two  horses  being  put  in  each.  Grain  (in 
bins  in  the  second  story)  is  spouted  down  to  each 
alleyway  and  hay  chutes  reach  into  the  feeding 
alleys.  These  chutes  should  reach  up  through 
the  mow  nearly  to  the  roof,  should  be  Si/o' 
square  and  open  on  one  side.  These  chutes  form 
very  efficient  ventilators.  There  is  an  alleyway 
(Fig.  157)  that  gives  access  to  the  central  pas- 
sage where  horses  are  harnessed  or  hitched  to 
the  vehicles.  There  should  be  a  window  to  the 
harness  room,  omitted  in  the  drawing,  opposite 
the  one  in  the  alley. 

Ladders  through  the  hay  chutes  give  access 


ORAIM  lUJSPOUT 


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FIG.     157.      HORSE    BARN    WITHOUT    CROSS-TIES     (ARRANGEMENT    OF    FLOOR). 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


99 


to  the  mow.  Hay  is  taken  in  at  either  end 
through  doors  arranged  so  as  to  allow  the  use  of 
slings  and  the  taking  in  of  draughts  at  any  de- 
sired height,  these  doors  reaching  from  the  peak 
down  to  the  floor  of  the  mow.  This  barn  could 
be  easily  converted  into  a  cattle  barn  by  putting 
in  cattle  stalls  where  the  horse  stalls  are  ar- 
ranged. 

A  BARN  FOR  14  HORSES. 

The  plan  shown  in  Fig.  158  is  for  a  barn 
36'  X  60'.  It  will  accommodate  14  horses. 
By  increasing  the  length  12'  it  will  aeeoraraodate 
18  head.  It  has  two  feed  rooms,  a  safe  and 
convenient  place  for  harness,  two  box-stalls  and 
12  open  stalls. 

The  barn  may  be  sided  with  16'  stock  boards 
with  battens  or  with  shiplap.  By  making  the 
eaves  higher  than  IS'  there  will  be  more  room 


The  feed  rooms  are  situated  on  each  side  of 
the  driveway  and  are  each  divided  into  two  com- 
partments and  an  entry  so  as  to  allow  a  variety 
of  feed  to  be  kept  and  to  be  easy  of  access. 

The  barn  should  be  lighted  with  10  windows 
on  each  side,  two  to  each  box-stall,  two  to  each 
feed  room  and  one  in  front  of  each  single  stall. 
Common  barn  sash  should  be  used,  having  six 
8"  X  10"  panes  to  each  sash,  a  single  sash  to  each 
window,  with  the  longest  way  of  the  sash  up  and 
down.  They  should  be  put  in  on  top  of  the  girt, 
about  4'  from  the  bottom  of  the  sill  and  should 
be  arranged  to  open  by  sliding  to  one  side. 

Feed  rooms  should  be  sided  with  hard  pine 
flooring  with  the  smooth  side  next  to  the  stalls 
and  driveway.  Instead  of  a  harness  room  hooks 
can  be  put  up  along  the  sides  of  the  feed  rooms 
next  to  the  driveway,  which  will  be  found  to 
answer  as  well  as  a  regular  harness  room  and 
more  convenient,  as  it  will  be  more  accessible. 


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FIG.    158.     BARN    FOR    14    HORSES     (FLOOR    ARRAXGEMEXT) . 


for  hay,  but  a  barn  of  the  dimensions  given  will 
contain  all  the  hay  required,  as  it  will  hold  about 
40  tons. 

Instead  of  chutes  or  the  regular  mangers  to 
feed  hay  there  is  a  feedway  3'  wide,  with  per- 
pendicular sides  3'  high  from  the  floor  of  the 
stalls,  and  it  is  floored  on  a  level  with  the  top  of 
the  sill.  A  feedway  like  tliis  is  better  than  man- 
gers or  chutes,  as  it  allows  a  man  to  pass  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  barn  in  front  of  the 
horses  when  feeding;  there  is  absolutely  no  waste 
of  hay,  as  the  horses  stand  with  their  heads  over 
the  hay  while  eating  and  do  not  pull  it  out  and 
drop  it  under  their  feet,  and  the  chaff  is  not 
constantly  falling  down  in  their  eyes,  as  when  a 
manger  is  used  that  feeds  from  above. 


The  box-stalls  should  be  sided  perpendicular- 
ly, inside  and  out,  from  floor  to  ceiling,  with  hard 
pine  flooring,  except  the  front,  which  can  be 
sided  up  4'  high  and  left  open,  unless  a  stallion 
is  to  be  kept,  in  which  case  the  front  may  be 
finished  up  to  the  ceiling  with  y^  rods  set 
about  4"  apart  in  the  top  of  the  partition,  or 
the  regular  box-stall  wire  work  may  be  used.  No 
manger  should  be  used  in  the  "box-stalls,  the  hay 
being  fed  on  the  floor.  None  will  be _ wasted  un- 
less more  is  fed  than  the  animal  should  have. 

The  floor  of  the  hay  mow  should  be  not  less 
than  9'  from  the  floor  of  the  barn,  though  10'  or 
even  12'  would  be  better  for  sanitary  reasons. 
The  mow  should  be  floored  solid,  except  over  the 
feedways,  which  should  be  left  open  to  throw 


100 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     ISO. 


NEBRASKA     HORSE    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


feed  down.  The  roof  should  have  from  one-third 
to  one-half  pitch,  and  should  be  self-supporting 
so  as  to  do  away  with  all  cross  ties  in  the  mow. 
The  driveway  can  be  floored  with  2"  plank  and 
clay  floors  used  in  the  stalls,  but  that  and  many 
other  minor  details  must  be  governed  by  the 
individual  taste  and  requirements  of  the  builder. 
This  barn  was  originally  built  for  about  $1,000. 

A  NEBRASKA  HORSE  BARN. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram of  the  ground  plan  {Fig.  160)  that  the 
interior  arrangements  of  this  substantially  built 
stallion  barn  in  the  main  consist  of  a  wide  drive- 


Avay  24'  x  152',  with  a  row  of  boxes  on  either  side. 
This  driveway  affords  a  place  in  which  to  exer- 
cise the  horses  every  day  in  the  year,  being  of 
such  dimensions  tliat  they  may  be  taken  on  a 
gallop  if  desired  from  one  end  to  the  other — 
and  all  horsemen  understand  the  value  of  such 
{1  place  when  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  pre- 
vents outdoor  exercise. 

Another  special  feature  is  the  construction  of 
the  boxes.  The  partitions  between  the  boxes  and 
abutting  on  the  hall  consist  of  a  solid  4"  wall  of 
pine,  made  of  2"  x  4"  pieces  laid  like  brick,  one 
on  top  another,  with  a  cap-piece  of  oak  5'  up. 
Above  this  for  3i/>'  more  there  is  a  grating  of 
gas  pipe  y^"  i^^  size,  outside  measure,  and  4" 


Fia.    IGO.      NEBRASKA    HORSE    BARN     (GROUND    PLAN), 


HORSE  BARlsS  AND  STABLES. 


101 


apart.  To  provide  means  of  speedy  egress  in 
case  of  fire  there  is  an  outside  door  to  every  stall. 
The  foundation  consists  of  a  solid  18"  wall 
18"  deep ;  piers  and  interior  posts  are  18"  x  18" 
and  3'  deep.    The  frame  is  a  mortise  and  tenon ; 


/HJJACf    (2'XJ4' 


BOX 


T^    ^ 


~. n 

i     Closer  1 


fASSACC 


■SL'DINO    OOOtfS- 


FIG.     161.       THREE-STORY    FARM    AND    HORSE    BARN. 

8"  X  8"  Stuff  for  posts,  sills  and  cross-beams ; 
posts  22'  high.  The  first  floor  is  of  earth  and 
the  second  floor  over  boxes  is  matched  flooring, 
and  over  hall  common  boards.  The  joists  are 
2"  x  10" ;    16"  apart  over  stalls,  12"  apart  over 


hall.  Sides  5i^"  patent  siding;  rafters  2"  x  8", 
2'  apart,  with  2"  x  8"  ridge  pole;  shingle  roof, 
Avith  eaves  projecting  24".  Stall  windows  have 
nine  lights  and  slide  to  one  side.  The  hall  and  of- 
fice windows  have  12  lights,  each  10"  x  12",  and 


H 


^IDLNO  DOORS 


MACHINES 


m 


m 


.3*  X  eo 

£C  P 

MfKCHINES 
AND 
THReSMEO   Of}/K/N 


B- 


FIG.     162.       THREE-STORY    FARM    AND    HORSE    BARX. 

second  floor  windows  have  12  lights,  each  10"  x 
14".  The  inside  doors  are  of  three  thicknesses 
of  %"  matched  flooring.  There  is  a  cellar  9' 
deep  under  feed  room  for  carrots.  The  sides 
and  ceiling  of  office  room  are  matched  ceiling  of 


102 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


pine  and  in  the  second  floor  ro'onis  laths  and 
plaster.  The  large  ventilator  is  10'  x  10'  and 
handsomely  proportioned. 

Several  years  ago  the  cost  of  this  barn  was 
probably  between  $8,000  and  $9,000.  Fig.  159 
shows  the  elevation. 


,^.^^^. 


\ 

^-t-^ 

/  \ 

/  \ 

1 

• 

1                        II 

1 

FIG.     163.       THREE-STORY    FARM    AND    HORSE    BARN. 

THREE-STORY  FARM  AND  HORSE  BARN. 

The  three-story  farm  and  horse  barn  shown  in 
Figs.  161,  162  and  163  is  34'  wide  and  80'  long, 
with  six  double  stalls,  two  single  and  four  large 
box-stalls.  Through  the  basement  {Fig.  161)  is 
a  cross  driveway.  Grain  is  spouted  down  into 
small  bins  at  one  side  of  the  passage  and  closets 


on  the  other  side  will  be  found  convenient  for 
harness  and  stable  furniture. 

As  this  three-storied  barn  is  narrow  it  was 
needful  to  restrain  the  height  as  much  as  is  safe 
to  avoid  wrong  proportion,  so  each  story  was 
built  8'  in  the  clear.  With  the  self-supporting 
roof  ample  room  for  hay  storage  is  secured.  Hay 
is  taken  in  from  outside,  though  empty  wagons 
may  be  driven  through  the  second  story.  To 
make  the  drive  high  enough  to  take  in  loads  of 
hay  would  be  a  useless  extravagance.  Hay  doors 
may  be  put  in  each  end.  To  take  out  braces  and 
yet  make  the  center  span  of  joist  bearers  strong 
enough  can  be  done  by  the  wooden  truss  shown 
which  makes  the  span  unbreakable. 

AN  IOWA  STALLION  BARN. 

The  brick  stallion  barn  shown  in  Fig.  166  was 
built  by  Champlin  Bros,  in  Clinton  Co.,  la.,  at 
a  cost  of  $16,100.  This  barn  is  built  of  solid 
brick  and  is  140'  x  75'.  The  front  elevation 
shows  two  stories  high ;  the  rear  is  three  stories. 
(See  Fig.  165.)     The  first  and  second  floors  are 


REAH  ELTWTiaN 


FIG.    165.       AN    IOWA   STALLION    BARN. 


^^^M 


FIG.    164.      AN    IOWA    STALLION    BARN     (LONGITUDINAL    SECTION). 


C_J_ 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


103 


I 


FIG.    166.     AN    IOWA    STALLION    BARN    (FRONT    ELEVATION). 


for  horses  and  the  third  floor  is  for  hay  mow 
and  grain  bins.  It  has  a  capacity  for  100  horses, 
there  being  40  box-stalls  and  60  single  stalls. 
The  blacksmith  shop,  heated  harness  room,  wash 
room,  robe  room,  offices  and  large  space  for 
showing  horses  are  on  the  first  floor  {Fig.  166)  y 
and  a  large  carriage  room  is  on  the  second  floor. 
The  barn  is  equipped  with  an  electric  motor, 
which  cost  $1,000,  to  run  elevator,  grind  feed, 
pump  water  and  unload  hay  and  oats. 


BARN  FOR  40  HORSES. 

This  barn  for  about  40  horses  (see  Figs.  167 
and  168)  was  erected  on  a  large  Kansas  farm 
and  has  many  excellent  features.  There  are 
stalls  for  42  horses  and  three  box-stalls,  abun- 
dant hay  room,  harness  room  and  room  for 
stableman.  The  latter  room  may  be  made  into 
a  box-stall  if  preferred.  The  diagrams  show 
the  interior  arrangement  and  exterior  appearance 
of  the  barn. 


VIG.     167.      BARN    FOR    40    HORSES     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


104 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


Cl.ni<-n  t 
7*1  <C. 


Crois  Ocction  of  Stalls. Co.  rntnt  floor. 

A- open  uiire  or  iron  «iorl(  or ^t,oJs 

^         .    w: W. 

4f     '  ■ 


r 

W.    _      J>.    ^loMiJt  Slidino  2)»o»-. 

"    "^    ^*    „        .  -^     — T 


Drive  Way  for 


,     I         I  11  I  I    ^j  J>« 


Bo>  Stall. 


fc/f  jiassape. 


D<or. 

i)riireui<ly  WKti 
\)nloa.di'q^  Hay 
■Bins  aiovcx 


fe/^  pasiafe. 


Staile.  Mat 


|r/t 

btaU 


FIG.    16&.      BAUN    FOR    40    HORSES     (CROSS-SECTION    AND    FLOOR). 


BANK  STABLE  FOR  HORSES. 

This  building  is  36'  wide  and  52'  long,  there 
being  two  bents  of  16'  each  and  for  convenience 
in  placing  posts  two  bents  of  10'  width  at  the 


Sv,*«, 


6p  r 


5>-.„J.- 

5».U^JU. 

P.I 

1 

r^  1 

FIG.    169.       BANK    STABLE    FOR    HORSES     (FLOOR). 

box-stalls.  It  has  a  feed  alley  6'  wide  and  a 
wider  passage  between  the  box-stalls.  Bins  may 
be  above  this  wider  passage  with  spouts  down. 
Abundant  light  and  air  may  be  provided,  as  the 
wall  sets  back  to  allow  a  row  of  windows  on  each 
side.  Ventilation  also  through  the  hay  chutes 
will  help  keep  the  horses  in  health.     The  stalls 


FIG.    170.       BANK    STABLE    FOR    HORSES     (ELEVATION). 

are  5'  4"  wide,  three  to  a  bent.     (See  Figs.  169 
audi  7a) 

MCMILLAN'S  HORSE  BARN. 

A  convenient  barn  for  draft  horses  built  by 
H.  G.  McINIillan  on  his  farm  in  northwestern 
Iowa  is  shown  in  Figs.  171  and  172.  The  dimen- 
sions are  56'x76'.  The  engraving  {Fig.  171) 
shows  the  north  end  of  the  barn.  On  the  right 
extending  from  the  southwest  corner  of  the  barn 
to  the  west  is  a  shingled  roof  shed  24'  x  48'.  On 
the  left  extending  east  from  the  northeast  corner 
of  the  barn  is  another  shed  32'  x  80'.     Both  of 


HORSE  BARXS  AND  STABLES. 


105 


FIG.    171.     MCMILLAN'S    HORSE  BARN    (ELEVATION). 


H 


ilcti/'iii    I  C/Yll/ 


DmrrwArs 


w 

FIG.   172.    m'millan's   horse  barn    (plan). 

these  sheds  open  to  the  south.  There  is  a  drive- 
way running  north  and  south  and  crosswise  east 
to  Avest.  The  drop  roof  on  both  sides  gives  ex- 
cellent light  in  the  upper  part  of  the  barn,  and 
may  also  make  the  structure  stronger.  The  bam 
has  a  capacity  for  175  to  200  tons  of  hay. 


A  BARN  FOR  SPEED  HORSES. 

Wliat  is  considered  one  of  the  best  barns  in 
Kentucky  from  a  sanitary  and  practical  stand- 
point is  that  of  L.  V.  Ilarkness  at  the  Walnut 
Hall  farm  at  Donerail,  near  Lexington,  Ky.  It 
is  an  impressive  structure  on  account  of  its  size 
and  on  close  examination  all  practical  horsemen 
are  taken  with  it,  mainly  because  of  its  practical 
merit. 

The  building  itself  is  400'  long  by  70'  wide. 
(See  Fig.  173.)  It  is  located  on  a  knoll  not 
far  from  the  track  on  which  the  Walnut  Hall 
youngsters  are  developed  for  speed  and  not  far 
from  the  homestead  where  ]Mr.  Harkness  makes 
his  home  when  in  Kentucky.  The  situation  is 
superb,  as  it  insures  the  best  of  drainage,  an 
absolute  necessity  where  the  stall  floors  are  com- 
posed of  dirt. 

In  the  center  of  the  stable  from  one  end  to  the 
other  is  a  large  runway,  large  enough  so  that  in 
stormy  weather  it  is  possible  to  exercise  the 
horses  indoors.     {Fig.  174.)     This  really  has  all 


FIG.  173.    barn  for  speed  horses    (elevation). 


106 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     174.      UAliS    FOR    al'EEU    IiOi;aES     l  iXTEUIOR). 


the  merits  of  a  covered  track — all  that  is  needed 
indeed  for  a  barn  in  that  section  of  the  country. 
Exactly  in  the  center  of  the  stable  is  a  section 
for  road  carts  and  sulkies  and  here  also  are  doors 
opening  from  the  stable  capable  of  allowing  a 
man  in  a  vehicle  to  drive  out.  In  this  section 
are  cement  floors  for  the  washing  of  the  vehicles. 

On  either  side  of  the  driveway  which  extends 
the  whole  length  of  the  barn,  are  the  box-stalls. 
These  are  commodious,  with  doors  facing  on  the 
interior  driveway  and  also  doors  facing  on  the 
exterior,  while  above  are  small  windows.  These 
exterior  doors  are  constructed  so  that  in  case  of 
fire  the  attendants  will  be  able  to  liberate  all  of 
the  horses  without  going  into  the  building.  Once 
out  the  horses  can  roam  as  they  please  and  be 
captured  at  will. 

Above  the  large  box-stalls  is  limited  space  for 
the  daily  feed  of  the  horses.  Evidently  the 
owner's  idea  in  constructing  the  building  was 
to  afford  plenty  of  space  for  air,  and  in  this 
respect  the  barn  is  an  admirable  pattern.  That 
the  idea  is  all  that  was  intended  is  best  evidenced 
from  the  fact  that  few  horses  have  ever  had  any 
sickness  in  the  stables. 

The  entire  barn  is  of  frame  construction  and 
while  not  elaborate  in  regard  to  finish  is  cer- 
tainly practical  and  has  every  convenience  for 
everyday  use. 

AN  ILLINOIS  STALLION  BARN. 

This  stallion  barn  built  a  few  years  ago  in 
Illinois  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  model  of  con- 


venience, although  there  is  nothing  very  preten- 
tious in  its  architecture ;  neither  is  it  an  expen- 
sive building. 

Fig.  175  represents  the  south  elevation  of  barn 
and  shed  connected  with  it.  Basement  with  box- 
stalls  and  the  plan  of  the  yards  and  distribution 
of  water  also  are  shown  in  the  drawing.  {Fig. 
175.)  The  barn  (40'  x  70')  is  located  on  the 
south  and  near  the  top  of  a  gentle  ridge  running 
east  and  west.  It  is  constructed  partly  on  the 
side-hill  or  basement  plan,  the  north  wall  being 
only  full  height  of  basement,  and  this  wall  is  all 
above  ground  except  3',  which  gives  room  for 
large  windows.  All  other  foundation  walls  are 
on  a  level  and  extend  but  a  few  inches  above  the 
ground  floors,  which  are  of  earth  in  the  boxes 
as  well  as  in  the  driveway  of  basement.  Founda- 
tion walls  and  framework  of  basement  corre- 
spond with  the  main  framework  of  the  building. 
The  framework,  consisting  of  five  14'  bents,  gives 
the  space  of  28'  x  40'  on  each  side  of  the  drive- 
way on  the  second  floor.  This  driveway  is 
reached  from  the  north  side  of  the  building.  A 
stone  wall  20'  long  and  parallel  with  the  build- 
ing, 14'  distant,  gives,  foundation  for  a  driveway. 
Against  this  earth  is  graded,  forming  an  easy 
approach  to  the  second  floor. 

The  reservoir  or  cistern  is  located  on  th^ 
highest  ground  obtainable,  and  this  not  being 
as  high  as  desired  a  portion  of  the  arch  is  built 
above  the  natural  level  and  heavily  banked  with 
earth.  It  is  bricked  up  from  the  bottom  with 
an  8"  brick  wall  laid  in  cement  and  the  mortar 
well  flushed  against  the  earth  bank  and  finished 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


107 


with  a  heavy  coating  of  cement  on  the  inside  of 
brickwork.  The  pipes  should  be  laid  at  the  same 
time  the  cistern  is  built.  The  diagram  shows  the 
manner  of  constructing. the  arch.  A  post  is  firm- 
ly set  in  the  center  of  the  cistern  to  a  height  at 
which  the  arch  is  designed  to  begin.  A  hinged 
rod  is  attached  to  the  top  of  this  post,  which  is 
swung  round  by  the  workman  as  his  work  pro- 
ceeds and  enables  him  to  form  a  perfect  arch. 


Inch-and-a-quarter  gas  pipe  is  laid  from  cistern 
to  hydrant  in  barn  basement  and  also  to  yards 
and  pastures  as  desired. 

The  diagram  representing  stock  waterer  (in- 
eluded  in  diagram)  shows  two  barrels  set  side  by 
side,  connected  by  a  short  piece  of  gas  pipe,  D. 
The  water  enters  the  barrel.  A,  from  the  bot- 
tom, E,  to  a  height  controlled  by  a  float  con- 
nected by  a  copper  wire  to  a  hinged  valve.    This 


0 


oo 


-^s^ 


t 


FIG.    175.     AN    ILLINOIS    STALLION   BARN     (ARRANGEMENT   AND    ELEVATION). 


108 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


allows  the  water  to  stand  in  the  barrel  to  just 
such  a  height  as  desired.  As  the  barrels,  A  and 
B,  are  filled  to  the  same  height  any  water  taken 
from  the  drinking  tub,  C,  is  quickly  replaced. 
For  a  drinking  tub  one-half  of  a  beer  keg  set 
in  the  end  of  a  kerosene  barrel  may  be  used. 

CONVENIENT  COLT  STABLES. 

The  colt  stalile  illustrated  and  described  here- 
with is  one  of  a  series  built  by  the  late  M.  W. 
Dunham  at  Oaklawn,  the  noted  Illinois  horse- 
breeding  establishment.  He  regarded  these  stables 
as  of  especial  value  w4th  reference  to  the  develop- 
ment of  young  horses. 

The  buildings  are  situated  in  line  east  and 
west,  about  40  rods  from  building  to  building. 
The  strip  of  land  used  is  60  rods  wide.  This 
gives  a  pasture  20x30  rods  for  each  field  and 
each  affording  abundant  pasture  for  two  animals 
the  year  round.  (See  Fig.  176.)  Of  course  in 
the  winter  a  certain  amount  of  hay  is  necessary. 
Each  stable  contains  stall  room  for  eight  ani- 
mals, with  the  partitions  put  in  {Figs.  178  and 
179),  so  that  four  animals  are  in  the  fields  and 
four  in  the  stable  alternately.  In  the  summer 
time  the  doors  are  left  open  and  are  provided 
with  a  canvas  fastened  at  tlie  top,  fitting  the 
doorway  closely.  This  excludes  the  light  and 
protects  the  animals  when  in  the  stable  from  the 
flies.  In  the  angle  of  each  stall,  stalls  combin- 
ing to  form  the  center  of  the  stable,  is  a  hydrant 
to  which  is  attached  a  float  valve  (see  Fig.  178) 
which  controls  the  supply  of  water,  except  in  the 
intense  cold  weather  in  the  winter  when  the  float 
valve  is  removed  and  the  tub  filled  with  water 
from  the  hydrant  as  required. 


The  grain  is  also  fed  from  the  center,  directly 
over  the  water  tub.  The  feed  bin  is  about  6' 
S(juare  and  of  sufficient  height  to  hold  about  200 
bushels  of  oats.  The  bottom  of  the  bin  tapers 
to  the  center  at  an  angle  of  about  60°  and  is 
closed  by  a  circle  of  sheet-iron  with  eight  holes 
of  sufficient  diameter  to  hold  two  quarts  of  oats, 
and  projects  to  within  2"  of  the  bottom  of  the 
feed  trough.    Another  sheet-iron  plate,  fastened 


FIG.      177.       CONVENIENT     COLT     STABLE      (ARRANGEMENT). 

in  the  center,  with  holes  corresponding  to  the 
pipes,  is  placed  flat  upon  its  top  surface,  to 
which  is  riveted  a  lever.  The  slot  in  which  this 
lever  works  is  long  enough  to  allow  the  opening 
and  closing  of  the  holes  in  the  lower  plate  b}^ 
the  movement  of  the  lever.  By  this  device  the 
movement  of  the  lever  permits  the  filling  of  the 
pipes  with  oats  and  the  reversal  shuts  off  the 
supply,  giving  each  animal  two  quarts,  or  any 
quantity  the  pipes  are  made  to  hold — the  grain 
filling  the  pipes  and  is  eaten  from  the  bottom. 
This  method  of  feeding  has  the  advantage  of 
rapidity,  uniform  quantity,  prevents  waste  and 
secures  slow  feeding,  consequently  better  mastica- 
tion.    The  fences  enclosing  the  pastures  are  7' 


FIG.    176.      CONVENIENT    COLT    STABLE     (ELEVATION). 


HORSE  BARXS  AXD  STABLES. 


109 


FIG.    178.     COX\EXIEXT  COLT   STABLE  WITH   PARTITION   REMOVED. 


high,     the  upper  2'  being  made  of  woven  wire. 

The  necessity  for  natural  development  of  young 
horses  in  the  open  air  and  on  green  feed  in 
order  to  secure  the  highest  usefulness  when 
grown  led  Mr.  Dunham  for  many  3'ears  to  pas- 
ture his  young  stallions  in  the  summer ;  and  the 
losses  incurred  hy  accident  Avhere  numbers  were 
kept  together  prompted  the  devising  of  the  plan 
just  described. 

]\Ir.  Dunham  found  the  use  of  these  buildings 
and  pastures  of  great  advantage.     Where  the 


animals  are  put  in  a  healthy  condition  there  is 
almost  entire  immunity  from  disease.  By  tliis 
means  health  and  natural  growth  are  secured  and 
accidents  and  unsoundness  are  rare. 

A  MULE  BARN. 

As  a  U'jye  of  special-purpose  building  the  mule 
barn  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration, 
Fig.  icS;?,  is  admirable  in  its  way.  It  is  designed 
for  about  165  mules  and  the  arrangement  is  com- 
mendable.   The  mules  are  fed,  watered,  harnessed 


FIG.     179.      CONVENIENT    COLT    STABLE    WITH    PARTITION    IN    PL.\CE. 


110 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     180.       A    KENTUCKY    MULE    STABLE. 


and  taken  out  without  interfering  with  one 
another.  The  sanitation  is  excellent ;  the  light 
is  ample;  the  provision  for  aeration  is  sufficient 
and  there  is  ample  warmth  in  cold  weather. 

As  the  barn  is  quite  wide  three  carriages  and 
three  tracks  are  used  in  filling  it  with  hay.  This 
saves  a  great  deal  of  hand  labor  in  mowing  away 
the  hay.  The  floor  plan  {Fig.  181)  explains  it- 
self. Painted  neatly  this  barn  presents  a  very 
attractive  appearance. 

STABLE  FOR  THREE  HORSES. 

Figs.  183,  184,  185  and  186  show  a  plan  con- 
taining one  box-stall,  two  single  stalls  and  room 


FIG.     182.        A     MULE     BARN      (REAR     ELEVATION). 


rTTTT=n  u  I  I  I 


BOX 

iixie 


STALLS 


DRIVE  WAY  iiAxaaa 


FLOOR  PLAN  OF  BARN   84XfcOO 
FIG.    181.      A    MULE    BARN     (ARRANGEMENT    OF    GROUND    FLOOR). 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


Ill 


38* 

FIG.     1&3.      STABLE    FOR    THREE    HORSES     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


for  two  carriages.  The  two  small  stalls  are  each 
5'  wide,  and  the  box-stall  is  10'  x  16'.  Then 
for  the  carriages  a  space  16'  x  16'  is  provided 
with  a  wide  door  that  will  admit  either  vehicle^ 
without  disturbing  the  other. 

The  upper  story  has  a  projection  on  each 
side  and  at  the  end  so  that  it  will  overhang  a 
little  way,  which  greatly  adds  to  its  beautj^  and 
picturesqueness.  The  outer  stairway  is  con- 
venient and  looks  well.  The  arrangement  of  the 
upper  story  may  be  according  to  the  taste  of 
the  builder;  if  there  is  a  man  to  live  there  the 
plan  shewn  will  be  very  satisfactory. 


The  lower  story  is  built  of  cobblestones.  The 
building  of  such  walls  is  inexpensive.  A  simple 
box  form  as  for  a  solid  concrete  wall  is  used, 
and  the  cobblestones  laid  on  the  side  of  it,  the 
other  side  being  left  smooth  for  the  inner  wall 
surface.  The  concrete  is  merely  put  against  the 
cobblestones,  not  on  their  face ;  it  holds  them 
secure.  Thus  such  a  wall  is  really  cheaper  than 
a  solid  concrete  one.  A  thickness  of  12"  will 
serve  for  such  a  wall. 

The  upper  story  should  be  either  of  plaster  or 
shingles,  the  chimney  of  cobblestones.  This 
stable  is  very  beautiful,  and  useful  as  well. 


5Ulb  5' 


■\^=l 


\E>ox  lO'ifc' 


58' 

FIG.    184.      STABLE    FOR    THREE    HORSES     (GROUND   FLOOR). 


112 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


1 — 1 
1 

M      -^ 1= 

1 

1 1 

r- 

1 

1 1 

,^.c.o». 

I5«24 

/ 

/ 

L_-  ' 

y 

Ha\^  TVlouj 

oe-is 

4-3' 

FIG.    IS 5.      STABLE    FOa    THREE    HORSES     (HAY    MOW    PLAN). 


^Ms^^M^v 


vjafflyN'- 


FIG.    1S6.       STABLE   FOR   THREE    HORSES     (END   ELEVATION). 

SHED  FOR  MARES  WITH  FOALS. 

Mares  with  young  foals  which  are  turned  out 
in  the  early  part  of  the  spring,  and  remain  out 
until  late  in  the  fall,  should  be  provided  with 
some  sort  of  shed  to  protect  them  from  the 
cold  rains.  This  will  prevent  them  from  get- 
ting all  kinds  of  sickness,  such  as  distempter  and 
coughs,  which  are  common  among  horses. 
Many  young  animals  have  been  stunted  in  growth 


by  being  subjected  to  all  kinds  of  rough  weather, 
and  some  die  and  are  broken  in  constitution  from 
exposure. 

This  shed  (see  Fig.  187)  may  be  placed  in  the 
corner  of  the  pasture  field,  and  used  at  their  own 
free  will.  The  shed  is  12'x24'  which  will  house 
comfortably  three  mares  and  their  foals,  and  in 
the  corner  may  be  placed  a  trough  or  troughs. 

It  is  always  desirable  to  erect  upon  the  farm 


FIG.     18 1 


-SHED     FOR     MARES     WITH     FOALS. 


buildings  which  are  comfortable  as  well  as  orna- 
mental and  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Of  course  every 
man  builds  according  to  his  means  and  own  taste. 
The  door  should  be  amply  wide  enough  to  pre- 
vent the  mares  from  being  jammed  or  crowded, 
as  the  case  may  be.  A  foundation  sliould  be  built 
with  the  level  of  the  ground,  on  whicli  the  sleep- 
ers rest ;  these  should  be  lO'xlO',  or  in  accord- 
ance with  the  size  of  the  building.  All  the  rest 
of  the  timber,  that  is,  the  framework,  with  the 
exception  of  the  siding,  is  4"x4"  lumber.  The 
height  of  the  buikling  is  8i/>',  which  will  prevent 
mares  striking  their  heads  against  the  ceiling; 
in  fact,  there  is  no  danger  of  this,  as  there  is  no 
ceiling.    The  roof  may  be  covered  with  tar  paper 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


113 


LARGE     IOWA     HORSE    BARX     (ELEVATION). 


or  shingles,  the  latter  being  the  cheaper  of  the 
two.  The  shed  should  be  whitewashed  once  or 
twice  a  year,  to  guard  against  vermin.  The  cost 
is  slight  when  complete. 

A  LARGE  IOWA  HORSE  BARN. 

This  barn  (see  Fig.  188)  is  288'  long  by  80' 
wide  and  contains  over  450,000  feet  of  lumber, 
the  approximate  cost  being  $20,000.    Eighty  12' 


l)ox-stalls  are  provided,  with  an  exercising  arena 
48'x80'  in  the  center  of  the  barn.  {Fig.  189.) 
The  feed  boxes  are  hinged  in  the  center  so  as  to 
swing  in  and  out  of  each  stall,  the  mangers  being 
between  and  above  the  boxes  which  reach  across 
two  stalls  except  at  end  stalls.  They  are  indicated 
on  the  plan  by  small  circles  over  each  stall. 
Second  floor  is  reached  by  an  outside  bridge  and 
contains  a  driveway  down  the  center  24'  wide, 
the  floor  all  over  being  double  and  mismatched 


--*-q  '  p- 


BOX  STALLS 


52  mnwKt 


tp. 


-q    '    P->-.' 


BOX 


BOX 


STALLS 


STALLS 


wma.         DRIV£*Wy  WMJK 

-y-^=:b>'W=i=b-r-^=;=fe-T-(rT~b'T-^ 


T  0— I — B  r  e— 
BOXpALLS 


\Z 


288- 


FIG.     189.  LARGE    IOW.\    HORSE    BARX     (GROUND    FLOOR). 

POUCH 


HAY 


OPEN  TO  ROOF 


DRIVE  WAV    2  ABOVE  GROUND  FUOOR 


ROOMFWl 
■ROOMS 

V 


HAY 


BrrwEENoorrn)  LINES 

O^IWr  tAISrS4AB«Vf  ARENA 


CHlffE 


OP  EN  TO  ROOF 
CHiflE  CHUTE 

FEED  BIN  TZiM'xie'OElP 


OPEN  TO  ROOF 


HAY 


OFFICE 


OPEN  TO  ROOF 


PORCH 


FIG.    190.      LARGE    IOWA    HORSE    B.VRX     (SECOND    FLOOR). 


114 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


SO  nothing  can  fall  on  the  horses  below.  On 
the  first  floor  the  mangers  are  outside  of  the 
stalls,  which  permits  of  a  wagon  being  driven 
through  so  as  to  unload  feed  on  each  side  with- 
out having  to  get  off  the  wagon.  The  stalls  are 
made  of  2'  x  4'  hickory  perpendiculars,  2"  apart, 
indestructible  and  giving  perfect  ventilation. 
The  doors  to  stalls  are  double — an  inside  door  of 
heavy  slats  and  an  outside  tight  door — so  that 
by  a  little  arrangement  near  the  big  outside  door 
at  side  a  man  can  open  or  shut  them  all  simul- 
taneously. Plan  of  second  floor  is  shown  in 
Fig.  190. 

BARN  FOR  18  HORSES. 

The  size  of  barn  shown  in  Fig.  191  is  40'x50' 
with  24'  posts.  All  the  stalls  are  single  except 
two  box-stalls.    A  single  stall  is  more  satisfactory 


bl 

4    "  ;\^ 

a 

E 

I                      ?                     1' 

?     H        '              9              9 

-p;^ 

1  l^il 

I;; 

;i   __u   i; 

1 

1 

1        R 

1 

1 

1            C! 

i 

.rzin. 

CO ...^ 

„CD 

»T.,N.«,.., 

"Soor" 

DOOR. 

i 

W  1? 

1 

1 

U           1 

1 

1 

V 

1 

1 

1 

i 

i)             i 

i             l 

I                     i 

s 

•  e«g  iS  TO  CO  UP  under  thi  jo> 

ST  ALL  TH 

E  *.»  ON  TOP  or  POST. 

. 

s 

•  N  ST.IL  PARTITION.  TMt  JOIST   T 

O   RUN   CR 

OSSWISE   OF  .U.LD.NG. 

7, 

!! B ^ 

B "H 

r 

FIG.     191.       BARN    FOR     18     HORSES      (GROUND    PLAN). 

than  a  double  stall.  There  are  mangers  and  feed 
boxes  in  the  box-stalls  so  two  horses  can  be  kept 
in  them  if  necessary.  A  feed  alley  along  the 
center  is  provided  with  bins  for  two  different 
kinds  of  grain.  By  having  24'  posts  there  will 
be  ample  room  for  storing  enough  hay  and  straw 
to  last  from  one  harvest  to  another.  Place  a  hay 
door  at  either  end,  whichever  is  most  convenient, 
4'  wide  and  Sy^'  high  on  sides  of  door.  For  out- 
side sheathing  use  common  10"  stock  boards  with 
battens  or  if  a  very  good  tight  sheathing  is  want- 
ed use  10"  stock  boards  shiplapped  and  then  bat- 
tens on  them.  Paint  the  battens  before  putting 
them  on;  also  give  the  barn  a  priming  coat  be- 
fore the  battens  are  put  on. 

BARN  FOR  HORSES  IN  TEXAS. 

Fig.  193  shows  a  barn  to  contain  six  stalls  for 
horses,  two  large  box-stalls,  for  mares  and  colts 


and  in  the  center  an  open  space  for  farm  imple- 
ments and  wagons  and  buggies;  also  bins  for 
cottonseed  and  corn  with  room  above  for  storing 
plenty  of  hay  and  to  set  a  feed  cutter. 

This  barn  is  32'x64'  with  bents  spaced  16' 
apart.     Two  spaces  are  devoted  to  the  tools  and 


32' 
IG.   192.   BARN  FOR  HORSE.S  IN  TEXAS. 


BOX   STALL 
I6'x  n' 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS 
I6'x  32' 


PASSAGE    6 


OOOR 


OPEN    SMEO 


FIG.     193.       BARN    FOR    HORSES    IN    TEXAS     (PLAN). 

wagons,  one  to  two  box-stalls  at  one  end,  and  at 
the  other  end  there  is  room  for  the  six  single 
stalls  with  a  feed  alley  6'  wide  and  horses  facing 
it.  (See  Fig.  193.)  There  is  ample  room  in 
the  loft  for  forage.  There  might  be  a  bin  up 
there  for  cottonseed  and  a  spout  leading  to  the 
bin  below.  This  lower  bin  would  perhaps  better 
be  put  next  the  side  rather  than  in  the  center, 
as  indicated  {Fig.  193),  as  it  would  be  more 
readily  filled  when  hay  was  stored  in  the  loft. 
It  should  all  be  of  joist  construction,  as  de- 
scribed elsewhere  in  this  book. 

BARN  FOR  20  HORSES  IN  INDIANA. 

This  barn  {Fig.  194)  with  central  driveway 
]0'  wide,  and  stalls  on  each  side,  with  the  horses 
fed  from  the  rear,  is  a  cheap  one,  and  very 
serviceable,   too.      It   cost   about  $1,000.      It   is 


I 


HORSE  BARXS  AXD  STABLES. 


115 


not  quite  so  convenient  for  feeding  as  when 
there  is  an  alley  in  front  of  the  horses,  but  that 
costs  a  great  deal  more  money.  Barn  is  32x80' 
with  16'  bents,  which  cut  up  into  three  stalls, 
each  a  little  more  than  5'  wide  in  the  clear. 
There  are  three  roomy  box-stalls  and  the  corn- 


p — ^ 

1 

13'x 

..' 

■  ox 

u'xit' 

BOX 

PASSAGE 

lo'x  eo 

STAUS    3'W 

1 

BOX  1 

Xlt' 

1 

L 

— 1 

FIG.    194.       BARN    FOR    20    HORSES.  IX    INDIANA. 

crib  is  in  a  separate  building  nearby,  the  oats 
stored  above  and  spouted  down  at  one  end.  It 
might  be  well  to  put  in  a  track  in  the  alleyway 
that  has  on  it  a  manure  carrier,  so  that  in  case 
the  attendant  does  not  have  a  team  hitched  up 
he  can  clean  the  stable  and  run  the  manure  out- 
side promptly.  There  might  be  a  feed  carrier 
run  on  the  same  track.  Let  the  posts  be  16'  or 
18'  with  self-supporting  roof. 

The  best  floor  is  of  hard  clay,  using  plenty  of 
litter,  though  the  floor  of  the  central  driveway 
may  well  be  made  of  cement  dropped  down  4" 
lower  than  the  floors  of  the  stalls  and  sloping 
toward  them  at  each  side. 

BARN  FOR  SIX  HORSES  IN  OKLAHOMA. 

This  barn  {Fig.  195)  is  .32'x32',  with  a  10' 
passage  in  the  middle  and  the  horses  are  fed 

32' 


o> 


PASSAGE.   10'X32' 


BOX  FORSTALLION 
13'XI6' 


BIN 
13*XI6* 


from  the  rear,  thus  saving  the  room  that  a  feed 
alley  would  require.  This  gives  a  snug  little 
barn,  with  room  enough  and  no  waste  space. 
Let  the  posts  rise  16'  and  put  on  a  self-support- 
ing roof  with  joist  frame. 

SMALL  STABLE  FOR  TWO  HORSES. 

Fig.  196  is  of  a  plan  for  a  stable  to  hold  two 
horses,  with  place  for  feed,  harness  and  buggy. 
This  little  stable  is  of  low  cost  and  very  con- 
venient.   The  addition  of  one  box-stall  will  be  a 


FIG.     195.       BARN     FOR     SIX     HORSES     IN     OKLAHOMA. 


FIG.     196.        SMALL    ST.iBLE    FOR    TWO    HORSES. 

great  convenience,  especially  useful  should  one 
of  the  horses  be  sick.  Indeed  no  stable  should 
be  planned  without  one  or  more  box-stalls.  The 
building  will  of  course  have  a  loft  above  for  hay 
and  there  should  be  an  oat  bin  above  the  feed 
room.  Two  sets  of  harness  can  easily  hang  in 
the  buggy  room. 

Let  the  windows  be  as  high  up  as  possible 
and  hinged  at  the  bottom,  opening  inwardly  to 
permit  the  air  to  pass  over  the  horses  without 
blowing  directly  upon  them.  ]\Iake  the  stable 
door  a  ''Dutch  door";  that  is,  divided  horizon- 
tally in  the  middle  so  that  the  upper  half  may 
be  opened  and  the  lower  half  remain  closed. 

BARN  FOR  HORSES  AND  SHEEP. 

Fig.  197  shows  a  plan  for  a  barn  to  hold  a 
jack,  a  stallion  and  58  breeding  ewes. 

Hard  clay  is  used  for  the  floors,  and  the  barn 
is  24'  X  56',  with  two  box-stalls,  each  16'  x  16', 
and  a  passage  8'  wide,  with  a  place  for  the  ewes 
24x24'.  {Fig.  198.)  As  the  breeding  season 
is  usually  after  the  sheep  leave  the  barn  their 
room  will  serve  well  for  the  breeding  pen.  At 
other  times  one  of  the  sires  might  be  taken  out 
and  his  stall  made  use  of.  INIake  the  ceiling 
10'  in  the  clear,  put  in  plenty  of  light,  make 


116 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


wide  doors  and  large  windows  high  up,  and  the 
oat-bin  place  in  the  hay  mow  where  it  can  be 
filled  by  hoising  up  oats  in  the  sack  by  means 
of  a  hay  lift.     The  oats  will  then  spout  down 


' 

1  iii|i  ;i 

'    r'   i 
—    III 

'  '  '1 

-,    1          f 
1             1 

|||l 

1 

1 1 

1  I 

m!i 

1 

f  irrrn 

imp' 

T  M 

III'., 

:-ra' 

ml    1 

1      J 

IJ  ■'  H-D 

1 

'1  ' 

ji 

BneeoiNG     box 

.a 

24  X24 


R  PASSAGE  6X32 

OSPOUT    rOR  OATSr-i 


FIGS.     197    AND     198.       BARN    FOR    HORSES    AND     SHEEP. 

into  the  passage  way.  Build  with  two  bents  16' 
apart  and  two  more  12'  apart,  hang  a  wide  door 
in  the  sheep  department,  divided  so  that  one- 
half  of  it  hinges  at  its  upper  edge,  the  lower  half 
as  a  gate  hangs.  Use  the  joist  frame  and  self- 
supporting  curb  roof. 

PLAN  FOR  HORSE  AND  HAY  BARN. 

The  horse  and  hay  barn  shown  in  Figs.  199  and 
200  is  thus  described  by  the  farmer  who  pro- 
posed building  it: 

"This  is  a  hay  and  horse  barn  for  a  300-acre 
farm.  It  is  of  joist  frame  construction,  all 
dimension  lumber  of  hardwood.  Shall  we  use 
good  shingles,  costing  $5  per  thousand  laid, 
or  galvanized  roofing?  Will  the  roofing  re- 
quire as  much  sheeting  as  the  shingles!  We 
estimate  that  the  roofing  could  be  laid  at  one- 
fifth  the  cost  of  shingles.  We  feel  that  the  shed 
roof,  being  only  one-quarter  pitch  would  not 
give  satisfaction  with  shingle  roof.  Will  8'  in 
the  clear  give  head  room  to  operate  a  manure 
carrier  and  dump  on  low  wagon  as  spreader? 
Will  a  15'  stall  give  room  for  a  carrier  when 
harness  is  hung  behind  horses?  A's  are  5' 
slide  doors;  B  4'  door;  C  6'  door;  D  12'  door 
giving  entrance  to  bay;  E  carrier  track;  F 
12'xl4'  box-stalls;  G  T  stall  allowing  carrier  to 
pass  horse ;  B  thirteen  5'  stalls.  The  attic  over 
horses  is  planned  capacious  enough  to  allow  stor- 


age room  for  generous  amounts  of  straw.  We 
do  not  like  a  corncrib  in  a  barn,  so  have  planned 
a  rat-proof  one  outside. ' ' 

The  subjoined  comment  is  made :  ' '  This  plan 
is  in  the  main  excellent.  Galvanized  corrugated 
iron  is  first-class  roofing  material  and  is  very 
durable.  It  requires  less  than  half  the  amount 
of  sheeting  that  shingles  require  and  lays  very 


tr 


FIG.    199.       HORSE    AND    HAY    BARN    (CROSS-SECTION). 


A 

0 

1 

< 

r 

B 

1—    ' 

c                          ■ 

- 

< 

,r 

CRDUNO  Fl.OOR  PLAM 

8 

1 

< 

F 

B 

M 

12' 

12 

12 

12 

"   ~ 

0 

" 

S'FEEO  WAY 

« 

s 

" 

„              H 

" 

H              H 

" 

" 

" 

"i 

1 

1 

FIG.    200.       HORSE    AND    HAT    BARN     (FLOOR    PLAN). 

rapidly.  Eight  feet  in  the  clear  gives  plenty 
of  headroom  for  a  manure  spreader  and  9'  gives 
a  horse  room,  so  that  15'  allows  a  manure  car- 
rier to  pass  behind.  The  location  of  the  corn- 
crib  outside  the  barn  where  rats  will  not  enter 
is  wise." 

A  CONNECTICUT  HORSE  STABLE. 

Tlie  horse  stable  shown  in  Fig.  201  lias  an  8' 
sliding  door  in  front  and  at  the  left  on  the 
entrance  are  four  convenient  harness  closets. 
Turn  to  the  left  and  on  entering  the  stable  and 
at  the  left  are  stalls;  there  is  no  turning  the 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


117 


horse  around.  The  grain  room  is  in  front  of 
the  stalls  and  a  small  door  opens  above  the 
manger  to  feed  oats.  The  hay  is  in  corner  racks 
and  stairs  lead  from  the  grain  room  to  hay  loft. 


36' 


SIIDIN6  D. 


*i5 


.C<^ 


*i^ 


.0<^ 


^ 


am. 


OAT  BIN 
w 


SLIOIN|, 


DOOR 


FIG.     201.       CONNECTICUT    HORSE    STABLE. 

A  HANDY  SMALL  STABLE. 

Another  farmer  commenting  says :  ' '  The  plan 
is  a  very  common  one  and  seems  to  me  the  acme 
of  unhandiness;  the  alleyway  is  an  unnecessary 
waste  of  space ;  hay  must  be  handled  twice  to 
get  it  to  the  horse ;  there  is  an  unnecessary  num- 
ber of  doors  and  worst  of  all  one  must  lead  his 
horse  out   {Fig.  202)   doors  and  around  to  an- 


SMAa  HINGED  WINDOWS  WITHOUT  GLASS 
'   I 1   '  t 


MANGER 


YARD      I 


MANGER  SUPPLIED  THROUGH 
0PENIN6  FROM  LOFT 


STALL 

8'jfl4' 


SLI 01 N6  DOORS 


BUGGY 
10*18' 


SLIDING  DOORS 


FIG.     202.        A     HANDY     SMALL     STABLE. 

other  part  of  the  barn  to  hitch  up.  A  box-stall 
8'xl4'  is  large  enough  if  there  is  an  exercising 
paddock  in  connection.  ]\Iy  plan  {Fig.  202) 
shows  a  stable  which  I  have  used  for  many 
years  and  find  very  satisfactory.     I   am   able 


to  hitch  up  inside  the  barn  and  do  not  have  to 
crawl  through  the  manger  or  go  around  the  barn 
to  get  to  my  horse  after  feeding. 

PLAN  FOR  A  SMALL  STABLE. 

An  Ontario  farmer  criticising  a  small  stable, 
remarks  that  a  stall  8'  Avide  will  rub  the  hair 
from  the  quarters  and  tail  of  a  horse  when  he 
turns  (for  it  will  see  to  it  that  its  head  is  not 
rubbed,  unless  it  is  of  the  small  pony  t j-pe. )  He 
says:  ":\Iake  the  stall  2'  wider — 10x14'.  It 
is  a  great  convenience  to  have  the  sliding  door 
slide  both  ways  and  I  like  it  to  run  in  the  wall 
so  the  post  at  P  is  6"  {Fig.  203)  to  the  inside 
but   still   supports  the   studding  and  overlays. 


«F 


MANGER 


o 


STALL 


BUGGY 


SLIDING  DOOR 

FIG.    203.       PLAN    FOR   A    SMALL    STABLE. 

Then  I  can  open  the  door  wide  enough  at  P  to 
allow  me  to  go  in  or  out  or  take  the  horse  out 
under  saddle  without  cramping  the  buggy  to  the 
front  end  of  driving  room  or  running  it  outside. 
By  having  the  stall  door  at  D  it  is  much  handier 
to  unhitch  inside — horse  simply  w^alks  out  of 
shafts  and  stands  till  I  lift  liarness  and  he  w^alks 
into  stall  without  coming  back  past  buggy  where 
he  may  very  easily  skin  his  legs  on  hubs.  Both 
stall  doors  are  divided  so  that  I  can  leave  the 
top  third  open  in  warm  weather.  H  is  har- 
ness •  room.  Stair  rises  towards  left  and  hay 
is  put  down  into  feedroom  F  which  requires  to 
be  filled  each  other  day.  I  do  not  like  to  climb 
up  a  stair  each  time  I  feed  my  horse  and  I  do 
like  to  sprinkle  water  over  all  hayfeed.     Some 


118 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


years  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  hay  free 
from  dust,  and  a  'heavey'  horse  is  easier  made 
than  cured.  To  be  sure,  this  sprinkling  oc- 
cupies nearly  45  seconds  each  day,  but  plenty  of 
men  waste  that  much  time.  0  is  a  box  for 
oats  and  B  is  an  oatbin,  and  I  do  not  have  to 
carry  oats  from  one  end  of  stable  in  through  the 
stall  to  manger  at  the  other  end.  The  window 
in  the  stall  is  screened  with  chicken  wire.  The 
oatbin  is  tilled  either  at  the  window  (a  shade 
below  level  of  wagon-box)  or  from  the  buggy 
room.  The  man  who  delivers  may  take  his 
choice.    I  pay  him  at  the  house. ' ' 

BARN  FOR  STALLIONS  IN  MISSOURI. 

The  plan  shown  in  Fig.  204  is  for  a  barn 
36'  in  width  from  outside  to  outside.  The  foun- 
dation wall  need  be  only  35",  the  nail  girts  and 
siding  taking  3"  on  each  side.  The  driveway  is 
10'  and  the  box-stalls  a  trifle  less  than  12'. 

Fig.  204  shows  a  cross  section  through  the 
middle,  showing  how  the  open  center  is  made. 
The  rafters  are  spliced  at  the  curb  by  1"  boards 
nailed  on  each  side.  Each  rafter,  consisting  of 
two  parts,  is  made  in  a  form  on  the  ground  so 
that  each  one  will  be  like  all  the  others.  They 
are  then  raised  to  the  scaffold  at  plate  level  and 
one  of  the  peak  boards  nailed  on;  the  other 
cannot  be  put  on  until  the  pair  of  rafters  is 
raised  in  place.  Then  the  brace  under  the  rafter 
is  spiked  on.     It  may  either  be  spiked  directly 


to  the  rafter,  or,  better,  fitted  and  spiked  directly 
under  and  reinforced  with  short  pieces  of  6" 
boards  nailed  on  each  side. 

The  tie  across  the  ends  is  made  with  two  lines 
of  2"x6",  having  them  of  different  lengths  to 
break  joints ;  if  they  cannot  be  had  to  reach  clear 
across,  on  top  of  these  use  2"xl0"  flat  with 
another  like  piece  over  the  joint  for  a  splice. 

The  hay  door  should  be  from  8'  to  10'  wide ; 
the  jambs  on  each  side  can  be  built  up  of  2"x8" 
or  solid  pieces  can  be  used.  Plates  are  made  of 
2"xl0"  or  12"  and  start  on  top  of  the  end  ties 
and  are  spliced  on  top  of  the  posts  with  a  short 
piece  of  2"x8"  underneath,  which  is  first  spiked 
to  the  top  of  the  post.  The  braces  explain  them- 
selves. Do  not  spare  the  nails  and  spikes.  For 
the  cross  beams  use  a  good  many  6"  steel  wire 
common. 

STABLE  FOR  25  HORSES. 

A  stable  intended  for  25  horses  is  designed 
to  have  two  rows  of  double  stalls  spaced  along 
a  middle  drive  8'  wide,  the  stalls  each  9'  long 
(see  Fig.  206).  The  feed  alley  in  front  of  the 
horses  is  4'  wide  and  in  front  of  that  again  a 
system  of  bins,  each  8'  wide  and  with  sloping 
floors  that  will  permit  all  the  grain  to  be  drawn 
out  from  spouts.  Hay  may  be  fed  down  through 
chutes  24"  square,  each  chute  accommodating 
two  horses.  In  order  to  use  the  chutes  care  must 
be  taken  in  mowing  away  hay  not  to  cover  the 
openings,  though  if  the  mow  is  to  be  filled  quite 
full  the  chutes  should  extend  on  up  to  the  roof. 


Fid.     204.      BARN     FOR    STALLIONS    IN    MISSOURI     (FRAMEWORK). 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


119 


They  must  be  quite  smooth  on  the  inside,  else 
hay  will  lodge  in  them.  Two  box-stalls  are  pro- 
vided and  a  harness  room  16'xl7'.  Altogether 
this  will  be  found  a  most  convenient  stable.  A 
concrete  water  tank  may  be  provided  just  out- 
side the  door.     The  grain  bins  may  all  be  filled 


from  the  outside,  or  from  the  mow  floor,  where 
there  may  be  built  in  a  conveyor  running  the 
length  of  the  barn  with  spouts  to  each  bin. 


FIG.    205.       STABLE    FOR     25     HORSES     (FRAMEWORK). 


PLAN 


FEfD /HARNESS  ROOM 
I6'»  17' 


BIN 


£} 


BIN 


BIN 


L£ 


-1=- 


DRIVE 


3 


C.  HAY    CHUT  E    TO    MOW 
M. MANGER 

FIG.    206.       STABLE    FOR    25    HORSES     (FLOOR    PLAN). 


T 


CD 

C 

ro  OCX 
O^  oro.    ta 
X   ■<     => 
IN)    33   a 
CP    o 

o 

3 


Wash 
Rack 


o 

< 

•< 


.E  3 


OFFice 
8 ''14 


IIIIHIIIIHIt^ 


Harness  Room 
4x  14 


Y 


TO 

<n 


Box  Stall 
13x14 


Box 
I4x|4 


□  Water 
Tank 


X'^*' 
•o-^ 


i 


Box 
14x14 


FIG.    207.       FLAX    FOR    A    SMALL    LRTIRT    STABLE. 


C»oset 

Kitchen 
lOxiO 


Living  Room      Bed  Room  o 

12 '^  14  .         10x14-        o 


-y 


\ 


Buggy  Storage 
18x40 


Elevator 


Gram         Bins 


Hay  Room 

20x40 


FIG.    208.      PLAN   FOR   A    SMALL   LIVERY   STABLE. 


120 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


PLAN  FOR  LIVERY  STABLE. 


NORTHERN  ILLINOIS  HORSE  BARN. 


According  to  the  plans  of  the  livery  stable  Figs.  209,  210,  211,  212  and  213  represent 
shown  in  Figs.  207  and  208,  the  horses  are  shut  architects'  plans  for  a  horse  barn  99'  2"  long  by 
away  from  the  draft  of  the  front  doors  which 
are  always  open.  Under  the  office  stairs  is  a 
closet  for  clothing,  robes  and  blankets.  The 
whip  rack  is  just  inside  the  harness-room  door. 
The  three  rooms  above  are  for  housekeeping  or 
some  of  the  help.  A  buggy  elevator  runs  from 
the  drive  floor  to  the  buggy  storage  room  above ; 
grain  can  be  elevated  on  this  and  emptied  into 
the  bin  above.  Put  a  track  and  hay  fork  in  the 
hay  room  so  that  hay  can  be  taken  in  from  the 
back  end.  Floor  the  driveway  and  stables  with 
cedar  3"  thick.  It  is  easy  on  the  feet  and  never 
gets  slippery.  Concrete  is  not  recommended  for 
livery  stables,  though  it  is  often  used  in  such 
buildings.  It  dulls  the  calks  of  the  shoes,  so 
that  horses  require  frequent  reshoeing. 


FIG.    211 


NORTHERN    ILLINOIS    HORSE    BARN     (FRAMEWORK). 


FIG.    209.     NORTHERN    ILLINOIS    HORSE   BARN    (HAT    MOW   PLAN). 


FIG.    210.      NORTHERN    ILLINOIS    HORSE    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


HORSE  BARNS  AXD  STABLES. 


121 


38'  2"  wide.    This  barn  contains  four  box-stalls,  Figs.  215  and  216,  with  the  exception  of  the 

10'  wide,  with  sliding  doors  and  ten  single  stalls  driveway,  which  was  raised  to  the  line  of  the 

5'  wide.     There  is  also  a  carriage  room  38'  long  second  floor  and  not  dropped  in  below  the  floor 

at  one  end  of  the  barn  and  extending  the  whole  as  indicated.     The  most  important  change  made 

width  the  other  dimension.    The  harness  room  is  was  in  the  rafters.     Instead  of  building  it  in 

*■ ' A -"'' ■••- r 


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dt"  -  ^dP^^  z  r=^  "iSiz  ^. 


•     t *•'•' ^ *.•»•........». i^'ff. »-,.... ..j»'/^ ^■, 


FIO.    212.     NORTHERN   ILLINOIS   HORSE  BARN    (BASEMENT  PLAN). 


FIG.     213.      NORTHERN    ILLINOIS    HORSE    BARN     (FRAMEWORK). 


13'  8"  long  and  10'  wide,  across  from  which  is 
a  place  for  washing  harness.  The  grain  bins 
are  in  the  attic  and  feed  is  distributed  by  means 
of  chutes. 

AN  INDIANA  ROUND  HORSE  BARN. 

In  Figs.  214,  215  and  216  is  shown  in  de- 
tail the  construction  of  a  circular  barn,  located 
in  central  Indiana.  The  foundation  and  second 
floor  plan  are  built  substantially  as  shown  in 


four  sections,  as  indicated  in  the  plan,  one  con- 
tinuous rafter  was  made,  thus  avoiding  by  that 
means  the  purlin  plates,  which  are  very  difficult 
to  get  into  place.  The  rafters  are  all  in  one 
piece  made  by  using  1"  x  8"  pine  boards  and 
cutting  them  8'  long  and  nailing  the  three 
boards  substantially  together,  protecting  all  the 
cracks.  This  makes  a  very  excellent  job  and  the 
roof  is  very  easily  constructed  in  this  way,  with 
derrick  to  put  the  rafters  in  place.    Each  rafter 


122 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


is  made  on  the  floor  of  the  barn  in  the  same 
form  and  then  afterwards  raised  to  its  place. 
The  circular  plate  on  which  the  cupola  rests 
is  constructed  very  much  on  the  same  plan  as  a 
wheel;  the  outside  rim  is  made  of  boards  l"x8" 
substantially  nailed  and  spiked  together;  spokes 
run  out  from  the  airshaft  every  2'  apart  on 
the  band.  The  inside  strips  in  the  manger  as 
indicated  by  the  plan  are  left  out,  and  the  frame- 
work of  the  ventilator  is  made  out  of  boards 
2"  X  6",  using  four  for  each  post,  three  side  by 
side  and  one  spiked  onto  the  edges.  This  makes 
a  very  solid,  substantial  airshaft;  the  posts  on 
the  outside  of  the  manger  and  the  end  of  the 
box-stall  are  made  6"  x  6"  instead  of  2"  x  6". 
It  is  very  important  to  have  good,  subtsantial 
headers  above  the  outside  doors — in  some  places 
timbers  8"xl0"  and  across  the  large  front  door, 
which  is  16'  wide,  boards  2"  thick  and  16"  wide 
three  thicknesses.    This  is  absolutely  necessary 


in  order  to  preserve  the  strength  of  the  circle 
for  foundation,  stone  laid  in  cement  is  used. 


FIG.     215.       INDIANA    ROUND    HORSE    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR). 


FIG.    214.      INDIANA    ROUND    HORSE    BARN     (SECTION). 


HORSE  BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


123 


FIG.     217.       SANITARY     DAIRT     BARN      (ELEVATION). 


DAIRY   BARNS. 


"We  are  fast  coming  to  realize  as  dairymen 
that  comfort  for  the  dairy  cow  is  second  only 
to  her  feed  in  the  production  of  cheap  and 
wholesome  milk.  The  dairy  cow,  unlike  the  beef 
animal,  returns  her  vitality  daily.  She  cannot 
store  energy  and  fat  thereby  enabling  her  to 
withstand  low  temperatures  and  storms  with- 
out lessening  the  milk  flow.  Each  generation  of 
dairy  cows  is  farther  removed  from  nature's 
plan  of  self-support  and  reproduction.  We  are 
constantly  adding  new  burdens  until  the  up-to- 
date  dairyman  is  not  satisfied  with  less  than 


were  taken,  that  disease  instead  of  health  fol- 
lowed, and  it  is  only  within  a  very  recent  period 
that  we  have  been  able  thoroughly  to  combine 
comfort  and  health,  which  means  nothing  more 
or  less  than  warmth,  light  and  pure  air. 

Until  these  were  possible,  we  had  no  form, 
size  or  mode  of  construction  that  could  be  called 
standard. 

Stables  were  built  providing  all  the  way  from 
200  cu.  ft.  to  1,500  cu.  ft.  air  space  per  cow. 
One  man  said  she  must  have  air  space  enough 
to  last  from  night  until  morning,  another  said 


b 


O 
X 


FIG.    218.      SANITARY    DAIRY    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


350  pounds  of  butter  or  its  equivalent  in  milk. 

The  dairy  sections  are  located  in  those  lati- 
tudes where  stabling  must  follow  for  nearly  six 
months  and  with  those  who  are  working  upon 
high-priced  land,  the  stabling  is  a  factor  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Another  problem 
has  also  confronted  the  dairyman.  As  he  more 
and  more  surrounded  the  cows  with  artificial  con- 
ditions, he  discovered  unless  unusual  precaution 


better  have  bad  air  than  cold  air,  and  so  we  each 
had  a  notion  of  our  own.  "When  Prof.  King 
formulated  the  theories  and  practices  of  ventila- 
tion into  a  concrete  plan,  he  laid  the  foundation 
for  dairy  stable  construction  upon  a  basis  to 
which  all  could  tie. 

We  have  now  come  to  recognize  that  a  well- 
fed  1,000-pound  cow  can  warm  about  500  cu. 
ft.  of  air  space  and  maintain  a  constant  inflow 


124 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


125 


of  cold  air.  Not  a  sudden  draft  and  then  ceas- 
ing altogether,  thereby  reducing  her  vitality  and 
*•  catching  cold,"  hut  putting  her  under  condi- 
tions more  uniform  than  the  balmy  days  of 
June,  with  no  storms  or  dampness.  Many  so- 
called  modern  stables  have  been  warm  but  damp. 

Better  have  low  temperatures  and  a  dry  air 
than  high  temperatures  and  dampness.  Damp- 
ness breeds  disease  in  every  form  of  life. 

A  damp  house  means  colds,  bronchial  troubles 
and  tuberculosis.  A  damp  hen  house  produces 
roup.  A  damp  cow  stable  brings  its  train  of 
evils,  including  that  most  threatening  and  for- 
midable of  all,  bovine  tuberculosis. 

]\Iuch  has  been  written  and  said  concerning 
this  form  or  that  form,  whether  we  should  build 
a  plank  frame  or  the  old-style  mortise  and  tenon, 
whether  the  roof  should  be  self-supporting  or 
held  together  by  purlin  posts  and  plates.  To 
l3e  sure  this  is  right  and  modern  methods  of  plank 
frames  and  self-supporting  roofs  have  advan- 
tages, but  they  are  all  inconsequential  to  the 
dairyman  when  compared  with  the  now  obtain- 
able essentials:  warmth,  light  and  pure  air. 
These  practically  cover  the  whole  question  of 
sanitation  and  hygiene. 

SANITARY  DAIRY  BARN. 

The  barn  shown  in  Fig.  218  was  built  6  years 
ago  by  H.  E.  Cook,  the  well-known  eastern  au- 
thority on  dairy  matters,  on  his  farm  in  New 
York  State.  Mr.  Cook  says:  "When  our  knowl- 
edge was  not  as  well  organized  as  it  is  today.  I 
endeavored  to  buikl  a  sanitary  barn,  one  in  which 
any  form  of  animal  life  could  safely  be  housed, 
even  including  the  human  family,  and  to  accom- 
plish this  at  a  cost  within  reach  of  any  pro- 
gressive dairy  farmer. 

' '  Formerly  it  was  generally  supposed  that  sani- 
tary barns  were  only  within  the  reach  of  the 
wealthy.  Unfortunately  this  state  of  affairs  had 
prevented  the  hard-working  dairyman  from  at- 
tempting such  construction.     Now  we  find  that 


a  habitable  stable  costs  but  little  more  than  one 
not  suited  to  animal  life. 

"Barns  may  be  built  high  or  low,  the  stalile 
in  the  first  story  with  storage  above  or  built  shed- 
like without  storage.  It  seems  to  me  preferable 
to  use  the  space  above  for  storage  as  a  matter  of 
economy;  for  with  a  perfectly  tight  ceiling  all 
chance  for  escape  of  moisture  and  foul  air  into 
the  hay  loft  is  cut  off.  We  have  storage  above 
and  also  at  one  end,  as  shown  in  plan.  {Fig. 
219.)  The  manure  is  hauled  direct  from  stable 
each  day,  entering  through  hay  floor  drive,  turn- 
ing and  passing  out  between  cows  at  south  end. 
The  granary  and  silo  are  both  convenient  to  the 
feed  mangers.  Box-stalls  are  found  in  the 
same  room  with  the  cows.  The  horses  are  also 
kept  in  same  apartments.  They  could  be  sep- 
arated if  desired.  The  floor  outline  is  shown  in 
Fig.  221,  all  being  built  of  cement.  The  windows 
{Fig.  220)  give  4  sq.  ft.  to  each  cow.  More 
rather  than  less  is  desirable.  Storm  windows  are 
put  in  about  the  first  of  December.  This  pre- 
vents frosting  and  more  perfectly  insulates  the 
room.  The  side  walls  are  made  of  matched  ceiling 
inside  and  outside,  the  studs  witli  the  space  filled 
with  straw,  although  dry  planer  shavings  are 
preferable.  Here  we  have  at  the  minimum  cost 
a  most  perfect  insulating  material.  So  complete- 
ly is  this  the  case  that  the  ceiling  rarely  swells  in 
the  long  cold  winters.  We  have  some  cement 
plastered  wall  that  is  more  desirable  and  when  I 
build  again  I  shall  plaster  both  ceiling  and  side 
wall  instead  of  using  matched  lumber.  The  wall 
nnist  be  smooth  and  tight  in  either  case.  The 
stable  should  not  be  over  8'  or  9'  from  floor 
to  ceiling." 


SOUTHERN   ILLINOIS   DAIRY  BARN. 

The  dairy  barn  shown  in  Figs.  220  and  221 
was  built  in  southern  Illinois  by  the  late  H. 
L.  Borden.  It  is  a  frame  structure  on  stone 
piers  from  1'  to  2'  off  the  ground.     It  is  used 


MaT\ger    || 


Cow  Platlorm 


mitt 


Dr'wewaii  ,, Cow  Platform  \\  ka  wall 
2 cmtter             "         \\  I'^krnqer    ^s 


Cross    Section   o!    harw   floor 


■9fr- 


cmller 


%xt^' 


|-.4tlT».— J 


r-24irv--i 


-5ft  ton-- 


FIO.    219.      SAXITART    DAIRY    BARN     (SECTION    OF    FLOOR). 


126 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    220.      SOUTHERN    ILLINOIS    DAIRY    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


FIG.    221.       SOUTHERN    ILLINOIS    DAIRY    BARN     (FRAMEWORK). 


as  a  cow  stable  and  has  a  loft  overhead  for  hay, 
which  is  elevated  by  hay  slings. in  the  center  of 
the  barn.  The  cow  stable  consists  of  two  rows 
of  stalls  (see  Fig.  ::22)  with  some  box-stalls. 
Each  single  cow  stall  is  5'  wide.  The  passage- 
way behind  the  cows  is  wide  enough  to  allow 
the  passage  of  a  two-horse  manure  spreader, 
which  saves  the  handling  of  the  manure  very 
often.    The  barn  cost  about  $2,400. 

A  ROUND  DAIRY  BARN. 
The  accompanying  plan  of  barn  for  a  dairy 
farm  was  designed  some  years  ago  by  Prof.  F. 


H.  King  for  a  Wisconsin  dairyman.  The  de- 
sign was  the  result  of  a  request  for  a  plan  of  a 
barn  for  a  dairy  farm  which  would  accommodate 
80  cows  and  10  horses  and  which  would  also  per- 
mit of  driving  behind  the  cattle  in  cleaning  aiid 
in  front  of  them  in  feeding  green  fodder.  A 
silo,  a  granary  and  storage  place  for  dry  fodder 
sufficient  for  all  the  animals  were  desired,  and 
the  whole  was  to  be  covered  by  the  same  roof,  to 
be  conveniently  accessible  in  all  its  parts,  but 
not  very  expensive. 

The  plan  in  several  fundamental  features  em- 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


127 


SMLL      DD 

I  i! 


I         \         0         ^^      n 


miPlN      I  DO  I  IB 

-IZB L-Cm    1      I— IL 


'     IP  I     y     in 


BRiVINq  FLOOR  l2rL0Nq^l2-WII)£ 


JMu       DO 


W  ODl 


1 — V — r 


CAIF  PEN 


CALF  PEN 


FIG.     222.       SOUTHERX     ILLINOIS     DAIRY    BARX     (GROUND     FLOOR). 


bodies  ideas  which  are  believed  to  be  worthy  of 
general  imitation: 

1.  "Whatever  other  advantages  or  disadvan- 
tages a  shelter  for  live  stock  possesses,  it  should 
in  no  way  interfere  with  the  best  performance 
of  the  animals  housed. 

2.  T4ie  shelter  should  be  so  built  that  the 
heat  necessarily  given  off  by  the  bodies  of  ani- 
mals housed  shall  be  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
best  stable  temperature  during  cold  weather  and 
at  the  same  time  admit  of  ample  ventilation, 
while  during  warm  weather  the  surplus  heat  may 
readily  escape. 

3.  The  construction  should  be  such  as  to  ad- 
mit the  needed  amount  of  light  to  all  the  ani- 
mals housed. 

4.  The  construction  of  the  shelter  should  be 
such  as  to  reduce  the  labor  of  caring  for  the  ani- 
mals to  the  smallest  amount  which  will  admit 
of  the  largest  yearly  net  profit. 

5.  The  form  and  arrangement  of  the  build- 
ings should  be  such  as  to  necessitate  the  least 
first  cost  and  the  smallest  maintenance  expense 
compatible  with  the  necessary  accommodations. 

Figs.  223  and  224  show  bird's-eye  views  of  the 
interiors  of  the  first  and  second,  stories  designed 
to  show  the  construction  of  the  barn  and  the 
arrangement  of  its  interior.  It  will  be  seen  that 
in  form  the  barn  is  cylindrical,  covered  with  a 
conical  roof,  Avhich  is  surmounted  by  a  cupola 
of  the  same  form.  The  barn  is  92'  in  diameter 
and  28'  from  sills  to  eaves.  A  cylindrical  silo 
24''  outside  diameter  and  34'  deep,  having  a 
capacity  of  14.126  cubic  feet,  occupies  the  cen- 
ter. Around  this  silo  in  the  first  story  98  adult 
cows  are  accommodated  in  two  circular  rows 
facing  a  common  feeding  alley  9'  wide,  and  be- 
hind each  row  of  cattle  is  a  wagon  drive  6'  wide 
for  cleaning  the  barn,  which  leaves  and  returns 
to  the  common  single  board  entrance. 


Extending  entirely  around  the  silo  in  the 
second  story  is  a  barn  floor  18'  wide,  from  the 
outer  edge  of  which,  though  chutes  leading  to 
the  feeding  alley  in  front  of  the  cattle,  green 
fodder  can  be  delivered  to  them  from  the  wagon 
or  dry  fodder  from  the  storage  space  above.  This 
floor  also  permits  of  driving  around  the  silo 
and  out  at  the  entrance  after  unloading,  even 
when  the  silage  cutter  is  being  run  to  fill  the 
silo. 

On  the  outside  of  the  barn  floor,  on  the  right 
of  the  entrance,  is  stable  room  for  10  horses, 
16'  from  front  to  rear,  34'  frontage  on  the  barn 
floor  and  55'  from  end  to  end  at  the  outside. 
On  the  left  of  the  main  entrance  is  a  workshop 
and  granary  whose  combined  floor  space  equals 
that  occupied  by  the  horses.  In  the  rear  of  the 
silo  is  a  space  1&'  deep  for  farm  tools,  having 
32'  frontage  on  the  barn  floor  and  possessing  a 
floor  space  equal  to  16x40  scjuare  feet.  Be- 
tween the  tool  room  and  the  horse  barn  on  one 
side  and  the  granary  on  the  other  are  two  hay 
l)ays  which,  together  with  the  space  above  the 
])arn  floor,  tool  room,  granary  and  horse  barn, 
furnish  ample  storage  space  for  dry  fodder. 

The  silage  is  delivered  to  the  cattle  barn  from 
the  silo  through  a  triangular  chute  shewn  in 
■Fig.  223,  extending  up  the  inside  of  the  silo ;  in 
one  side  of  this  chute  there  are  doors  and  at- 
tached to  the  other  is  a  fixed  ladder  by  which 
any  desired  level  in  the  silo  may  be  reached. 

The  foundation  of  this  barn  consists  of  four 
concentric  stone  walls,  the  inner  one  carrying 
the  walls  of  the  silo  and  through  them  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  floors  and  roof ;  the  two  mid- 
dle ones  carrying  the  stationary  uprights  of  the 
stanchions,  and  through  them  the  floor,  jnain 
posts,  purlin  plates  and  roof,  while  the  outer 
one  supports  the  walls  of  the  structure.  The 
laying  of  the  walls  to  a  circle  and  leveling  them 


128 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


was  a  simple  matter  and  accomplished  with  the 
aid  of  a  straight-edge,  one  end  of  which  was 
fixed  to  a  post  in  the  center,  with  the  lower 
edge  at  the  level  desired  for  the  top  of  the  walls. 
The  movable  end  of  the  straight-edge  rested  on 
a  ring  of  boards  tacked  to  stakes  driven  in  the 
ground  outside  the  wall  being  built.  The  inner 
wall  was  first  built  and  the  straight-edge  length- 
ened as  necessary.  The  frame  of  the  barn  con- 
sists almost  wholly  of  2"  stock  and  the  only 
long  timbers  are  the  eleven  posts  carrying  the 
purlin  plates.  No  mortise  and  tenon  work  was 
used  in  its  construction,  all  work  being  done 
with  the  hammer  and  saw.  The  first  story  sills 
of  the  barn  are  single  2"  x  10"  plank  sawed  in 
4'  sections  and  bedded  in  mortar  on  the  walls, 
the  sections  having  been  sawed  on  a  bevel  de- 
termined by  the  direction  of  the  radii  of  the 
barn.  On  the  sills  2"  x  10"  studs  are  set  2' 
apart  and  constitute  the  outer  frame  of  the 
basement ;  2"  x  12"  studs  set  flatwise  on  the  two 
middle  walls,  at  the  right  distance  apart  to  serve 
as  the  uprights  of  the  stanchions,  and  2"  x  12" 
studs  in  the  walls  of  the  silo,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
223,  constitute  the  vertical  supports  for  the 
second  story.  The  sills  of  the  second  story  con- 
sist of  short  pieces  of  2"  x  10"  plank  spiked 
down  upon  the  ends  of  the  three  outer  circles 
of  studding,  as  shown  in  Fig.  223,  and  of  three 
thickness  of  6"  boards  bent  around  the  upper 
ends  of  the  silo  studding  and  resting  in  the 
shoulders  sawed  for  them.  Two  thicknesses  of 
plank  rest  on  the  stanchion  supports,  but  the 
outer  sill  is  single ;  upon  these  2"  x  12"  joists 
are  distributed,  as  shown  at  5,  Fig.  223,  and 
these  carry  the  floor  of  the  second  story. 

Each  of  the  posts  carrying  the  purlin  plates 
rests  on  four  2"  x  10"  joists  spiked  together  and 
resting  on  the  sills  carried  by  the  two  rows  of 
stanchions,  the  particular  stanchion  uprights 
where  these  posts  come  being  strengthened  by 
2"  x  6"  studding  spiked  to  them  at  the  edge  not 
occupied  by  the  cows.  On  the  tops  of  these  posts 
short  pieces  of  2"  x  10"  plank  are  spiked,  as 
shown  at  1,  1,  1,  Fig.  224,  and  upon  them  the 
purlin  plates  rest,  spikes  being  driven  upward 
into  them  to  hold  them  in  place. 

The  raft'i'rs  and  studding  for  the  second  story 
are  2"  x  6"  stuff,  the  latter  being  set  3'  apart, 
and  the  lower  ends  of  the  rafters  are  carried  by 
two  layers  of  2"  x  6"  pieces  spiked  to  the  tops  of 
the  studding,  the  upper  layer  breaking  joints 
with  the  lower.  Fig.  224  shows  the  manner  of 
placing  the  rafters. 

The  rafters  were  cut  so  that  their  ends  when 
in  place  were  vertical  and  the  fascia  was  formed 
by  springing  a  board  to  them.    The  lower  one  or 


two  rows  of  roof  board  were  sawed  in  short  sec- 
tions, reaching  from  rafter  to  rafter,  and  then 
fencing  was  used,  full  length,  and  sprung  to  the 
rafters  over  the  remainder  of  the  roof.  It  was 
not  necessary  to  cut  shingles  in  laying,  except 
on  the  cupola,  and  in  laying  them  each  man  was 
provided  with  a  "horse,"  made  by  driving  spikes 
through  one  edge  of  a  short  piece  of  2"  plank, 
which  served  as  legs  and  prevented  sliding.  A 
mark  was  flled  in  the  edge  of  the  shingling 
hatchet  at  a  distance  from  the  nailing  face  equal 
to  that  which  the  shingles  were  laid  to  the 
weather,  and  this  served  as  the  only  guide  in 
placing  them,  which  was  done  rapidly  and 
readily,  the  men  following  one  another  round  and 
round. 

This  barn  is  covered  outside  with  drop  siding, 
sprung  and  nailed  to  the  studding  so  as  to  break 
joints,  and  on  the  inside  of  the  cattle  barn,  hor^e 
barn  and  granary  with  shiplap. 


FIG.     223.       A    ROUND    DAIRY    BARN     (FIRST    FLOOR). 


FIG.     224.       A    ROUND    DAIRY    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR). 

In  the  construction  of  the  silo,  2"  x  6"  stud- 
ding were  used  above  the  basement,  these  being 
spiked  side  by  side  to  form  the  11  long  ones, 
M'hich  extend  to  and  help  support  the  roof.  The 
lining  of  the  silo  consists  of  three  layers  of 
V2"   lumber   formed   by   ripping   common   fene- 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


129 


ing  ill  two,  and  between  these  are  two  layers  of 
tarred  paper.  The  same  kind  of  lumber  forms 
the  outer  covering  of  the  silo  and  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  studding  act  as  ventilating  flues  for 
the  cattle  barn. 

The  large  doors  slide  open  and  are  made  of 
matched  fencing  nailed  to  cleats  having  the 
same  curvature  as  the  sides  of  the  barn.  These 
cleats  are  made  by  springing  the  boards  into  the 
desired  curvature  and  then  fastening  them  se- 
curely together  while  in  that  attitude.  When 
this  is  done  they  remain  bent  as  if  they  had 
grown  ill  that  form. 

The  feeding  mangers  in  the  cattle  barns  are 
made  by  forming  the  earth  in  the  shape  of  shal- 
low, round-bottomed  troughs  in  front  of  each 
row  of  cattle,  raising  the  earth  between  them 
into  a  broad  rounded  ridge.  This  earth  after 
being  thoroughly  firmed  was  plastered  with  a 
coat  of  water  lime. 

When  it  is  known  that  air  once  breathed,  un- 
less diluted  with  that  which  is  fresh,  cannot  sup- 
port higher  animal  life ;  that  one-fifth  of  the 
weight  of  materials  taken  into  our  bodies  daily 
is  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  that  we  must  breathe 
346  cubic  feet  of  air  to  get  it ;  that  on  the  aver- 
age our  live  stock  consumes  more  air  per  capita 
than  we  do,  and  that  horses  have  died  from  suf- 
focation while  being  shipped  in  box  cars,  it 
should  be  evident  that,  coupled  with  our  efforts 
to  secure  warm  barns,  there  should  also  be  those 


around  the  silo.     It  will  be  seen  that  this  ven- 
tilation is  secured  without  sensibly  affecting  the  '^ 
cost  of  the  building,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
walls  of  the  silo  are  kept  dry  and  thereby  pro- 
tected from  decay. 

The  temperature  of  a  barn  whose  plan  of  ven- 
tilation is  the  one  here  described  is  under  as 
good  control  as  is  possible  where  artificial  heat 
is  not  employed,  because  the  cold  air  is  intro- 
duced at  the  warmest  part  of  the  barn,  while  it 
is  the  coldest  and  most  vitiated  air  in  the  barn 
which  is  being  removed.  Then  when  the  barn  is 
too  warm  the  doors  to  the  feed  chutes  may  be 
opened,  thus  providing  a  direct  escape  of  the 
overheated  air  from  the  ceiling. 

This  barn  was  built  for  a  little  less  than  $2,- 
400.     By  combining  everything  under  the  sin- 
gle roof,  by  adopting  the  cylindrical  form  which 
requires  the  smallest  amount  of  siding,  roofing  " 
and  paint,  and  which  admits  of  the  cheapest  and  " 
least  lumlier  for  the  frame,  and  bj^  distributing 
the  lumber  so  as  to  make  it  perform  two  or  more  - 
functions  a  great  deal  of  econoiiw  was  secured. 

Another  advantage  which  the  consolidated 
barn  possesses  over  several  small,  scattered  struc- 
tures, and  especially  where  the  feeding  is  done 
from  a  central  point,  as  it  is  in  the  plan  in 
question,  is  the  large  saving  of  time  which  it 
makes  possible  in  feeding  and  caring  for  the 
animals. 

The  great  economy  of  the  circular  plan  for 


to  provide  ample  ventilation.    The  plan  here  de-i/Tarm  buildings  over  other   types   of  structure 


scribed  possesses  a  very  simple,  cheap  and  ^- 
fective  method.  It  will  be  seen  from  Figs.  225 
and  226  that  the  32  spaces  between  the  studs 
ill  the  walls  of  the  silo,  being  open  at  the  floor 
of  the  cattle  barn  and  also  at  the  top,  constitute 
so  many  ventilating  flues,  each  34'  in  length. 
The  heat  given  to  these  flues  by  the  silage  in 
the  silo,  the  warming  of  the  air  in  the  basement 
by  the  cattle,  and  the  suction  produced  by  the 
wind  blowing  through  and  around  the  cupola, 
all  combine  to  maintain  a  strong  current  of  air 
out  of  the  barn  through  the  cupola  and  in. 
through  the  gangs  of  auger  holes  in  the  outer 
walls  vshown  at  2,  2,  in  Fig.  223.  It  will  be  seen 
from  the  arrows  in  the  cut  that  provision  is 
made  for  fresh  air  to  enter  the  barn  from  all 
sides,  which,  rising  between  the  studding  and 
flowing  along  the  space  between  the  joists,  falls 
between  the  rows  of  cattle,  but  is  first  mingled 
with  the  warmest  air  of  the  barn,  while  the 
coldest  and  most  impure  air  is  constantly  drawn 
out  from  along  the  floor.  A  very  important 
feature  in  this  method  of  ventilation  is  that  pure 
air  comes  direct  to  all  animals  alike,  while  the 
impure  air  is  drawn  out  in  a  uniform  sheet  all 


diminishes  as  the  size  of  the  building  decreases, 
but  it  is  nevertheless  well  adapted  to  some  of 
the  smaller  structures,  such  as  horse  barns  and 
sheep  barns.  In  any  case  where  an  octagonal 
barn  is  desired  the  circular  type  will  always  be 
found  cheaper  and  more  stable. 

Wliere  a  silo  is  to  stand  separate  from  other 
buildings  there  is  no  other  Xy^e  of  structure 
which  can  be  built  so  cheaply  as  the  circular 
one,  even  if  its  diameter  is  not  greater  than 
12'  X  16'. 

A  BARN  FOR  20  IMILCH  COWS. 

This  barn  is  designed  for  20  dairy  cows.  It 
has  ample  breathing  space  for  them  and  pro- 
vision is  made  for  as  much  light  and  sun  as 
possible,  unless  the  plan  of  detached  shed  with 
sky-lights  is  adopted ;  the  manure  is  removed 
at  the  minimum  of  labor  and  the  entire  build- 
ing is  planned  to  be  labor-saving.  The  little 
room  termed  an  office,  containing  lavatory,  tow- 
els, soap,  records  and  the  like,  is  possibly  larger 
than  is  needed  and  in  that  case  it  may  be  nar- 
rowed to  a  smaller  limit  and  another  stall  or 


130 


FARM  BUILDING8. 


two  made  of  the  room.  The  feed-room  is  a  con- 
venience that  no  dairyman  can  afford  to  do  with- 
out. Feed  is  stored  in  three  or  more  bins  above 
and  spouted  down  to  one  large  mixing  bin, 
where  it  is  measured  or  weighed,  mixed,  scooped 
up  and  fed. 

Reference  to  the  side  elevation.  Fig.  225, 
shows  the  window-openings  on  the  south  side 
(turning   the    building   east    and   west).      The 


FIG.     225.       BARN    FOR     20     MILCH     COWS. 


END    tLtVATfON 
FIG.     226.        BARN    FOR     20     MILCH     COWS. 


over-hang  is  to  protect  the  doorway  where  hay 
is  taken  in  at  the  end,  as  there  is  no  space  wasted 
in  driveways  to  unload  hay.  Fig.  ^26  shows 
the  end  elevation,  and  in  the  gable  is  noted  a 
combination  of  window  and  ventilated  shutter 


r.cp,..cr,.,^ 

V 

-^ 

1         1 

=JL_ 

V 

■Mil     \^      '-^1 

xfr 

1     1 

1                                                                                                                                                    MAMUOC       T«(}UeH                                    1 

FIG.    228.       BARN    FOR    20    MILCH    COWS     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


FIG.     227.       BARN    FOR     20     MILCH     COWS      (MOW     FLOOR). 


INTCFIOft    BCNT   or   WINCS    JOIST   TRAMC 

FIG.     229.       BARN     FOR     20     MILCH     COWS      (FRAMEWORK). 

that  looks  well  and  acts  well.  Providing  these 
at  each  end  there  is  no  need  of  ventilators  in 
the  roof,  as  ventilation  will  be  upward  through 
the  hay-chutes.  These  may  if  desired  be  ex- 
tended through  the  roof,  though  if  metallic 
shingles  are  not  used  (which  condense  vapors) 
there  is  no  ill  effect  in  letting  the  ventilation 
proceed  through  the  gables.  The  doors  to  take 
in  hay  open  down  to  the  line  of  the  floor  so  that 
hay  may  be  taken  in  without  raising  it  to  the 
level  of  the  track.  This  is  an  open-center  build- 
ing, with  joist-frame  construction,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  229.  The  frame  is  all  of  2"  stuff,  is  very 
much  cheaper,  fully  as  strong  and  in  every  way 
more  desirable  than  the  old-fashioned  frame.  It 
is  put  together  with  spikes  and  bolts  in  a  very 
short   time.      The  basement  is  made   10'   high, 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


1,31 


not  for  the  sake  of  head-room  so  much  as  for 
better  air  and  light. 

Fig.  227  illustrates  the  mow  plan;  hay  is 
thrown  down  into  the  feed-alleys ;  ladders  should 
be  built  in  the  chutes.  The  stairway  is  apt  to 
be  covered  over  at  times  with  hay.  The  bran 
bin  is  large  enough  to  allow  storage  of  a  great 
deal  of  bran. 

Fig.  228  shows  the  arrangement  of  stalls.  It 
will  be  noted  that  there  is  everywhere  plenty  of 
room.  The  cart  can  go  between  the  cows  and 
take  the  manure  away.  In  the  space  between 
the  feed-room  and  office  the  milk-wagon  may 
stand  if  necessary.  The  Van  Norman  stall  is 
used. 

This  barn  is  adapted  to  either  beef  cattle  or 
dairy  cows,  though  there  is  no  provision  for 
calves,  as  it  was  designed  primarily  for  milking. 

A  HYGIENIC  DAIRY  BARN. 

After  studying  for  many  years  to  learn  tha 
best  way  to  fasten  cattle  in  a  barn  a  great  many 


dairymen  have  come  to  believe  that  the  best 
way  is  not  to  fasten  the  animals  at  all.  A  good 
plan  is  to  have  a  large  open  shed  to  which  light 
and  air  have  free  access  and  in  which  are  feed- 
racks  and  troughs.  This  shed  should  be  kept 
well  bedded  and  aired.  The  cows,  loose  and  de- 
horned, stand  in  it  day  and  night.     Adjoining 


/  7       \  \ 

"L. t. -h' 


FIG.    232.       A    HYGIENIC    DAIRY    BARX     (FRAMEWORK). 


FIG.    230.     A   HYGIENIC    DAIRY    BARN     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


J 


K 


--,         , , 


I 


CATTLE    SHCO  -tOXlOO 


\ 


II 

r 

s 

"S 
11 

J 

f 
1   <■    ~ 

1  o 

w      

^ 

/ = 


—I 


"C. 


GROUNO    PLAN 

or 

HYCCNIC     DAIRY    BARN 


ENCLOSURE   42X100 


FIG.    231.     A   HYGIENIC    DAIRY    BARN    (ARRANGEMENT   OP   FLOOR). 


132 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


this  shed  as  planned  is  a  small  stable  fitted  with 
stalls  and  stanchions  where  some  grain  is  fed 
and  the  milking  done.  The  cows  are  in  their 
stalls  only  while  they  eat  and  are  being  milked. 
The  barn  should  be  whitewashed  two  or  three 
times  a  year  by  means  of  a  sprayer  that  reaches 
every  nook  and  crack  and  the  floor  kept  clean. 
Figs.  230,  231  and  232  show  the  plan  clearly. 
The  barn  is  well  ventilated  and  convenient  in 
arrangement.  Three  silos  are  shown  in  Fig.  231. 
No  provision  is  made  for  storing  hay. 

A  NEBRASKA  DAIRY  BARN. 

The  Nebraska  dairy  barn  illustrated  in  Fig. 
234  was  erected  in  1896  to  house  a  dairy  herd. 
The  floor  plan  and  dimensions  are  shown 
in  Fig.  233.  The  cows  stand  in  the  south  L, 
which  is  protected  by  the  north  L  from  the  win- 
ter winds.  The  two  Ls  are  the  same  size — each 
30'  X  48',  8'  posts.  The  barn  is  floored  upstairs 
as  well  as  down  (except  the  space  occupied  by 
silos),  and  cows  stand  high  and  dry  3'  to  6' 
above  the  ground,  and  there  is  a  window  for 
every  two  cows.  The  latter  stand  in  two  rows 
facing  in  on  a  feeding  alley  and  are  tied  with 
halters.  The  floor  of  the  manger  is  level  with 
the  feeding  alley  and  for  convenience  in  clean- 
ing the  manger  is  open  in  front. 

There  are  two  thicknesses  of  boards  on  all 


sides,  keeping  the  temperature  even  and  above 
the  freezing  point.  The  silos  extend  10'  below 
the  floor  and  up  into  the  loft,  making  them 
about  20'  deep.  The  silos  and  the  separator- 
room  have  a  thickness  of  building  paper  between 
the  boards.    With  a  separator  at  the  barn  only 


mm. 
____^ 

%s 

-^    urn   \ii   u 

U      Ui 

l]    .       lil 

,       i 

FIG.     234.       A     NEBR.\SKA    DAIRY    BARN     (ELEVATION). 

tlie  cream  is  taken  to  the  dairy-house  and  the 
skimmilk  is  fed  warm  to  the  calves  and  pigs. 
The  barn  has  a  root -cellar  under  the  south  end 
and  cost  $1,300.  It  will  accommodate  a  dairy 
lierd  of  about  30  cows. 

A  PENNSYLVANIA  DAIRY  BARN. 

A  very  complete,  elaborate  and  convenient 
])arn  (Figs.  235  to  238)  for  dairy  cattle  is  thus 
described  by  the  proprietors: 

"Our  barn  is  a  polygon  of  16  sides.     It  is 


I     [ 


<V-7-^ 


^S 


a."    D  «.  ■«  F 


r 


TXT 


r 


o 


V   7  ■■' 


r" 

_.  _ 

1 

r 

1-3'-' 

1 

G  u  '^^t-  V  -  / 


FIG.    233.      A   NEBRASKA    DAIRY    BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR    PLAN). 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


133 


believed  that  nothing  has  been  neglected  which 
would  add  to  the  comfort  or  healthfulness  of 
the  herd.  The  bran  is  lieated  by  steam  and  in 
winter  a  uniform  temperature  of  from  40  to 
45°  F.  is  maintained  night  and  day,  never 
colder  than  40°,  never  warmer  than  45\  Self- 
registering  thermometers  in  locked  cases  show  at 
all  times  any  variation  from  this  temperature. 


FIG.     235.        PENXSYLVANIA     DAIRY     BARX      (FRAMEWORK). 

The  aim  is  to  maintain  a  temperature  just  above 
the  freezing  point. 

' '  ]\rore  attention  to  proper  ventilation  has  been 
paid  than  to  all  else.  The  barn  is  surmounted 
by  a  cupola  20'  in  diameter.  This  is  open 
every  day  and  night  in  the  year.  The  lower 
sash  of  each  Avindow  is  raised  8"  and  a  board 


FIG.     236.        PEXXSTLVAXIA     DAIRY    DARX      ( ELEV.VTIOX ) . 

placed  under  the  sash.  A  hole  6"  in  diameter 
is  cut  through  this  board  in  which  is  placed  a 
zinc  pipe  opening  outwardly  and  turned  up  on 
the  inside  some  3'  in  height.    This  allows  for  the 


admission  of  air  between  the  two  window  sashes 
and  also  of  a  full  current  of  air  through  the 
6"  pipe,  thus  preventing  any  possibility  of  a 
current  of  air  striking  directly  upon  the  animals. 
By  this  arrangement,  no  matter  what  the  weather 


PEXXSYLVAXIA    DAIRY    BARX     (BASEMENT). 


may  be,  a  full  supply  of  pure  fresh  air  is  given 
to  every  animal  by  the  current  from  the  lower 
floor  passing  up  the  stairway  in  the  center  of 
the  barn  and  also  through  two  chutes  exteziding 
from  the  lower  floor  well  up  toward  the  roof. 


FIG.    238.       PEXXSYLVAXIA    DAIRY    BARX    (FIRST    FLOOR). 

''The  basement  {Fig.  237)  of  the  stable  is 
devoted  mainly  to  the  milking  cows.  It  is  laid 
with  concrete.  Gutters  covered  with  iron  grat- 
ings extend  back  of  the  cows  and  terminate  in  a 
sewer  which  leads  100  rods  away  from  the  stable. 
This  floor  can  be  scalded  out  with  hot  water,  the 
gutters  and  sewers  flushed  and  the  cattle  put 
l)ack  in  the  barn  on  a  dry  floor  in  an  hour's 
time. 


134 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


"The  first  floor  {Fig.  238)  is  of  two  thick- 
nesses of  matched  yellow  pine  with  tarred  paper 
between  the  layers.  Sawdust  is  used  for  bed- 
ding on  this  floor,  which  is  devoted  mainly  to 
box-stalls,  both  open  and  tight,  for  the  service 
bulls  and  for  cows  soon  to  calve. 

"In  a  room  on  this  floor  is  placed  the  cream 
separator  and  engine.     On  this  floor  is  also  a 


PIG.    239.       PENNSYLVANIA    DAIRY    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR). 

cleaning  machine,  which  by  a  system  of  revolv- 
ing brushes  cleans  a  cow  perfectly  in  from  three 
to  five  minutes'  time.  During  the  winter  months 
each  cow  receives  a  daily  cleaning,  three  men 
being  able  by  this  method  thoroughly  to  clean 
160  head  per  day. 

"The  second-floor  space  {Fig.  239)  is  devoted 


to  storage  for  fodder,  grain  and  bedding  and 
also  for  power  cutter,  which  cuts  one  ton  of  dry 
corn-fodder  into  1-3"  lengths  in  25  minutes. 

"The  barn  is  lighted  by  60  incandescent  elec- 
tric lamps.  A  night  watchman  is  employed  who 
every  half-hour  makes  a  complete  tour  of  the 
stable,  seeing  that  all  is  well,  a  touch  of  the 
button  enabling  him  at  any  time  to  notify  the 
superintendent  of  anything  wrong.  To  insure 
the  watchman's  wakefulness  and  attention  to 
duty  an  electric  time  detector  is  in  use  which 
keeps  perfect  record  of  his  movements  through 
the  barn. ' ' 

A  WISCONSIN  DAIRY  BARN. 

The  barn  shown  in  Fig.  240  was  built  by  A. 
Dutton  &  Son  in  1896  in  Trempealeau  Coun- 
ty, Wis.  It  is  60'  in  diameter  and  built  on  a 
southern  slope  with  a  basement  for  stock.  Stone 
was  used  on  the  hill  side ;  the  rest  is  built  the 
same  as  the  upper  part.  The  studs  are  2'  apart ; 
it  is  sided  with  drop  siding  and  sealed  on  the 
inside.  The  basement  floor  is  made  of  cement. 
There  are  20  patent  stalls  and  room  for  15  head 
of  young  cattle,  six  horses  and  a  box-stall.  There 
is  a  silo  in  the  center  16'  in  diameter  and  34' 
deep.  It  will  hold  150  tons  of  silage.  The  studs 
above  the  basement  are  20'  high :  this  makes  the 
barn  28'  high  to  eaves.  There  is  room  for  70 
tons  of  hay.  A  hay-carrier  is  used  on  a  circle 
track.  On  each  side  of  the  driveway  there  is 
granary  room  for  2,000  bushels  of  oats  and  a 
carload  of  bran.  The  silo  is  filled  from  the 
upper  floor. 


SovObV 


PIG.     240.      A    WISCONSIN    DAIRY    BARN     (FIRST    FLOOR    AND    HAY    MOW    PLANS). 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


135 


DAIRY  BARN  FOR  20  COWS. 

Figs.  241  and  242  show  a  plan  for  a  dairy 
barn  to  hold  20  cows  and  feed  room  to  cost  only 
$500,  with  lumber  at  $8  per  thousand. 

Make  four  bents,  placing  them  14'  apart.    This 


C^~^ 


6 


v^ 


7  ^^16' 


■32 


FIG.   241.     DAir.r  barn  for  20   cows    (cross-section). 


42 


FEED   ALLEY    6X42 


FEED    ROOM. 
I4'XI3' 


STA  LLS 


MAigUBt         TH^Ntht       ij' 


3  6 


nVSSAGE  5 


FIG.    242.       DAIRY    EARN    FOR    20    COWS     (FLOOR). 

will  make  a  barn  42'  long  and  the  width  is  32'. 
Reference  to  the  plans  will  explain  the  rest.  Put 
in  a  manure  carrier  behind  the  cows  and  a  feed 
carrier  in  front  of  them  if  there  is  money  left. 
The  roof  braces  are  not  shown  but  many  plans 
already  published  show  them  clearly.  The  posts 
18',  lower  rafters  14',  upper  rafters  11',  make 
a  building  high  enough  to  have  much  storage 
capacity. 


DAIRY  BARN  FOR  IDAHO. 

Plans  shown  in  Figs.  243  and  244  are  for  a 
dairy  barn  to  contain  40  cows  and  some  heifers, 
with  pen  for  calves  and  place  for  bull  and  stalls 
for  four  horses.  There  is  space  for  two  deliv- 
ery wagons  and  a  room  for  cooling  the  milk, 
besides  a  feed-room  which  is  supplied  from  l)ins 
in  the  loft.     It  contains  storage  room  for  about 


FIG.     243.        DAIRY     BARN     FOR     IDAHO     (FRAMEWORK). 


J,     w     -      w      -      w    0 

WAGONS 

i  w 

~°~ 

w      "      w    „1 

H(*S£      1       -- 

,  1     sriis 

T 

L 

FEED  ALLEY  6'XII?        | 

D     BOX 

""calves 

4,  ,. 

a 

MILK 
ROOM 
l2"X13r 

FEED 
ROOM 

iz-xiy 

a 

' 

J   ' — 

^ 

BOX 
l3Xlfc 
BULL 

ODWO  OWOWO 

FIG.    244.       DAIRY    BARN    FOR    IDAHO     (GROUND    PLAN). 

100  tons  of  hay  and  two  cars  of  ground  feed. 
The  stable  is  32'  wide,  112'  long  with  two  wings 
each  16'  X  32'.  The  wagons  are  kept  in  the  cen- 
tral driveway,  the  cooling  room  to  one  side  of 
it  and  the  feed-room  to  the  other  side,  each  be- 
ing near  to  the  center  of  the  barn.  {Fig.  244.) 
A  track  and  carrier  go  down  the  central  aisle, 
with  switches  to  the  wings,  carrying  feed  Avhere- 
ever  it  is  desired,  and  a  similar  track  with  car- 
rier behind  the  cattle  removes  rapidly  and  easily 
all  the  manure. 

Over  the  driveway  and  feed-room  are  great 
bins  for  the  ground  feed  which  can  be  cheaply 
elevated  by  horse-power,  either  in  sack  or  in  a 
mill  elevator;  if  it  is  bought  sacked  it  should 
be  elevated  in  the  sack  and  emptied  in  the  bins. 
Hay  may  be  taken  in  at  the  driveway  and  at 
the  ends  and  thrown  down  in  the  feed  alleys 
at  convenient  points.  The  framework  would  be 
of  joist  construction,  no  part  heavier  than 
2"  X  12"  being  needed,  with  self-supporting 
roof. 


136 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    24  5.       TEXXESSEE  DAIUY  BAIIX    (ELEVATION). 


A  TENNESSEE  DAIRY  BARN. 

This  building  (Figs.  245,  246,  247,  248,  249 
and  250)  is  a  frame  structure  54'  x  73'  6",  ex- 
clusive of  the  silos  which  are  18'  x  30',  and  an 
annex  which  is  18'  x  50'.  Figs.  245  and  249 
show  the  general  exterior  elevations  of  the  barn 
as  approached  from  the  south  and  west.  The 
silos  are  situated  at  the  south  end  of  the  barn, 
some  10'  being  under  the  ground.  This  brings 
them  on  a  level  with  the  basement  and,  as  they 
open  into  the  cow  stable,  it  materially  lessens 
the  labor  of  feeding. 

The  annex  on  the  west  side  of  the  barn  is  two 
stories  high.  In  the  basement  are  stalls  for  bulls 
and  calves,  while  the  upper  story  is  devoted  to 
the  various  wagons  and  implements  needed  in 


farm  work.  A  large  corncrib  is  situated  con- 
veniently near  the  barn.  While  the  exterior  ap- 
pearance of  the  barn  is  plain,  it  is  attractive  and 
pleasing  to  the  eye.  It  is  substantially  built  and 
is  of  the  type  known  as  a  bank  barn,  and  as  these 
present  some  features  of  special  interest,  a  di- 
gression will  be  made  to  call  attention  to  some 
of  the  special  advantages  of  this  style  of  barn. 

The  barn  is  built  into  the  side  of  a  small  hill. 
By  the  construction  of  a  retaining  wall,  which 
also  forms  the  foundation  of  the  two  interior 
sills,  and  by  projecting  the  barn  forward  on  the 
face  of  the  slope,  a  stable  is  secured  opening  on 
the  ground  level,  and  yet  sufficiently  protected 
on  the  north  and  west  to  keep  it  warm  in  win- 
ter. This  leaves  two  faces  of  the  stable  founda- 
tion exposed,  so  that  a  continuous  row  of  win- 


FIG.     246.      TENNESSEE    DAIRY    BARN     (SHED    ADDITION). 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


137 


FIG.    247.      TENNESSEE    DAIRY   BARN     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


-r 


■X 


■■Y 


:\ 


II  II  II -I 


-7 


\  '  1^  "  "  "  II 


ill!   II    II    II    C 


rcD         i 


i.fA» 


/     5 


Sm^      fltfo/n 


Mae/ii/19 


a 


Storage  Boom 


>^'' 


»i«     »s»s 


I 

f 


"^•^ 


=a    •    n  .    ■  ]fa 


.A 


fit 


FIG.    248.      TENNESSEE   DAIRY    BARN     (SECOND    FLOOR,). 


138 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


dows  on  the  eastern  and  southern  sides  gives 
ample  light  and  ventilation.  This  method  of 
construction  brings  the  second  floor  on  a  level 
with  the  ground  and  no  artificial  bridges  are 
necessary  to  enter  the  barn.  Generally  speaking, 
in  the  construction  of  a  bank  barn  great  labor 
and  expense  are  entailed  in  the  excavation  for 
the  stable.  In  this  instance  it  was  only  neces- 
sary to  cut  down  and  level  two  sides  of  the 
slope,  thus  reducing  the  labor  of  leveling  to  a 
minimum.  The  food  materials  carried  in  on  the 
second  floor  are  all  elevated  by  suitable  ma- 
chinery, so  that  the  silage,  roughness  and  grain 
required  for  the  stock  in  the  stable  below  are  eas- 
ily transferred  to  the  place  where  needed.  There 
are  thousands  of  natural  building  sites  where 
barns  of  this  type  can  be  constructed  at  little 
expense.  While  other  advantages  might  be  in- 
stanced, these  are  sufficient  to  impress  upon  the 
reader  the  importance  of  taking  advantage  of  a 
natural  site  when  building  is  contemplated. 


ance  and  permits  the  walls  to  be  washed  when- 
ever necessary. 

The  cow  stable  (Fig.  247)  is  situated  in  the 
basement  and  is  provided  with  a  Portland  ce- 
ment floor,  having  a  sloping  surface,  as  Fig.  247 
indicates.  The  mangers  face  the  exterior  walls 
of  the  barn.  A  4'  passage  is  provided  between 
the  stalls,  and  the  manure  gutters  are  16"  wide. 
The  floors  and  gutter  are  pitched  towards  the 
center,  where  trap  doors  connecting  with  under- 
ground sewers  are  situated,  so  that  the  stable 
can  be  easily  flushed  out  and  kept  in  a  sanitary 
condition  at  all  times.  The  floor  of  the  cow 
stable  is  raised  4"  above  the  main  floor  and 
above  the  4'  passage  way  that  is  provided  be- 
tween the  stalls.  This  makes  the  manure  gutters 
8"  deep  on  the  side  next  to  the  cow  and  only 
4"  on  the  side  next  to  the  passage.  While  this 
affords  all  the  advantages  of  a  deep  gutter,  it 
lessens  the  danger  of  the  cows  suddenly  stepping 
into  a  deep  trench  as  they  pass  back  and  forth 


FIG.     249.      TENNESSEE    DAIRY    BARN     (GENERAL    VIEW). 


Figs.  247,  248  and  250  present  in  some  de- 
tail the  transverse  section  of  the  barn,  the  plan 
of  the  basement,  and  of  the  ground  floor  or  stor- 
age barn.  From  an  examination  of  the  trans- 
verse section,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  posts  and 
plates  are  of  heavy  timbers.  The  roof  is  trussed 
from  above  so  as  to  leave  the  storage  space  in 
the  clear.  It  is  of  the  type  known  as  a  saddle 
roof.  As  already  stated,  the  brick  retaining  wall 
forms  two  sides  of  the  stable  and  supports  the 
frame  work  of  the  barn ;  the  other  two  sides  are 
supported  by  the  foundation  piers  of  brick  on 
which  rest  the  heavy  framing  timbers.  Fig. 
250  also  shows  the  situation  of  the  mangers  and 
the  arrangement  of  the  gutters  in  the  concrete 
floor.  It  provides  in  detail  the  several  dimen- 
sions of  the  storage  barn  and  the  stable  and 
shows  the  size  and  character  of  timber  used  in 
the  various  features  of  the  structure.  The  fac- 
tory system  of  exposed  structural  timbers  was 
followed  in  the  construction  of  the  stable,  and 
the  spaces  between  the  supporting  timbers  are 
enclosed  with  matched  ceiling  and  the  whole 
painted  white.    This  gives  an  attractive  appear- 


from  the  platform  on  which  they  stand.  The 
mangers  are  constructed  of  concrete  and  extend 
the  entire  length  of  the  stalls,  and  form  a  part 
of  the  floor.  The  side  of  the  manger,  next  to  the 
cows,  is  6"  high  and  3"  thick,  with  a  rounding 
bottom.  The  opposite  side  is  16"  high  and  main- 
tains  the   same   thickness.      The   width   of   the 


FIG.     250.        TENNESSEE    DAIRY    BARN     (FRAMEWORK). 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


139 


manger  is  2'  6",  and  it  does  duty  for  both  feed 
and  water.  The  barn  is  supplied  with  water 
from  the  city  mains,  and  hence  there  is  ample 
force  to  carry  it  all  through  the  building.  The 
mangers  have  a  grade  towards  the  center  and 
by  putting  a  plug  in  the  central  outlet,  the  cat- 
tle can  all  drink  at  will,  and  at  the  conclusion 
the  trough  can  be  thoroughly  flushed  out  and 
kept  sweet  and  clean.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that 
this  method  of  construction  makes  the  mangers 
practically  perfect  from  a  sanitary  standpoint. 
For  experimental  purposes,  we  have  found  it 
necessary  to  provide  divisions  between  these 
mangers.  This  has  been  cheaply  accomplished  by 
cutting  out  a  section  of  board  the  shape  of  the 
manger,  hinging  it  over  the  lower  angle  of  the 
stall  division  with  hoop  iron,  placing  a  2"  x  6" 
scantling  at  the  near  side  of  the  manger  and 
fastening  the  division  firmly  by  a  sliding  bolt 
lock.  These  partitions  are  so  nicely  adjusted 
that  they  prevent  the  admixture  of  the  different 
cows'  feed,  and  at  the  same  time  just  sufficient 
space  is  left  to  enable  the  free  movement  of 
water  through  the  entire  length  of  the  feeding 
trough.  Their  mobility  and  ease  of  adjustment 
are  a  decided  advantage  when  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  scour  the  manger. 

Stalls  are  provided  in  the  stable  for  30 
cows.  As  already  stated,  the  heads  face  outward. 
The  stalls  are  of  iron  gas  piping  with  the  di- 
vision posts  sunk  into  the  concrete  to  a  consid- 
erable depth  and  strongly  braced  so  that  they  are 
firm  and  rigid.  These  stalls  consist  of  adjust- 
able gates  and  panels  supported  by  a  woven  wire 
mesh.  To  the  front  of  the  stalls  is  attached  a 
strong  support  which  runs  the  entire  lengtli  of 
the  stable  and  being  bolted  to  the  stall  divisions 


gives  them  rigidity.  The  doors  open  by  means  of 
a  spring  so  that  as  the  cows  are  milked  they  may 
be  turned  out  if  desired.  These  stall  divisions 
also  keep  the  animals  separated  so  that  ease  of 
milking  is  possible  and  there  is  no  danger  of  one 
cow  tramping  on  the  udder  of  another.  They 
also  present  a  handsome  appearance  and  are 
strong  and  durable.  They  enable  the  strictest 
cleanliness  and  do  away  with  the  necessity  of 
tying  the  animal.  This  gives  the  animals  per- 
fect freedom  and  allows  them  that  comfort  which 
is  essential  to  their  well-being.  The  chains 
across  the  stalls  just  in  front  of  the  gutter  pre- 
vent the  cows  from  standing  or  lying  in  the 
droppings.  By  moving  the  adjustable  swinging 
panel  the  stalls  are  easily  adapted  to  the  size  of 
the  animal.  The  idea  is  to  keep  the  panel  ad- 
justed so  that  all  the  droppings  will  fall  in  the 
gutter.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  stalls  in  this 
barn  are  of  two  sizes,  namely:  for  large  and 
small  cows.  All  the  stalls  on  one  side  have  a 
uniform  width  of  3'  6"  in  length  and  on  the 
other  4'  8"  in  length.  This  permits  the  conven- 
ient accommodation  of  cows  of  different  sizes 
and  is  a  point  worthy  of  consideration.  While 
these  stables  cost  more,  they  are  economy  in  the 
end.  It  has  been  thought  by  many  that  cement 
floors  would  not  do  well,  as  they  would  be  too 
hard  on  the  animals  feet.  There  is  nothing  in 
this  objection,  as  animals  have,  in  other  places 
been  kept  on  these  floors  many  years  without 
injury. 

The  basement  also  contains  a  stock  judging 
room  where  specimens  of  the  different  classes  of 
live  stock  are  brought  in  and  conveniently  ex- 
amined and  scored  by  the  agricultural  students. 
This  brings  the  students  in  actual  touch  with 


FIG.    2  51.      BROOKS  IDE    DAIRY    BARN     (BIRD'S-ETE    VIEW). 


140 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    2  52.      BROOKSIDE    DAIRY    BARX     (iXTERIOn). 


%he  specimens  and  make  the  work  practical.  It 
also  enables  the  work  to  go  on  at  all  times  and 
provides  a  comfortable  and  convenient  place  in 
wiiich  to  do  the  work.  Box-stalls  are  provided 
also  in  the  basement  for  sick  animals  and  for 
calves.  Closets  are  conveniently  placed  for  tools 
and  other  snndries  needed  in  the  stable.  The 
milk  room  occupies  the  southeast  corner  and  is 
partitioned.  This  building  is  a  part  of  the 
Tennessee  Experiment  Station's  equipment. 

BROOKSIDE  DAIRY  BARN. 

Figs.  251,  252  and  25 S  show  a  dairy  barn  that 
is  laid  out  with  the  King  system  of  ventilation, 
the  arrows  pointing  in  being  inlets  and  those 
pointing  out,  outlets.    {Fig.  253.) 

The  windows  allow  for  over  7'  of  glass  per 
cow  and  are  doubled  in  winter  to  keep  from 
allowing  the  inside  temperature  to  fall  too  low. 

The  width  of  about  39'  inside  allows  for  a 
walk  behind  cows  of  6'  and  gives  ample  room 
for  mangers  in  front  and  passage  between  the 
rows.  x\  barn  of  this  type  when  finished  properly 
Avill  score  100  per  cent  according  to  the  score 
adopted  by  the  Dairy  Division  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington. 

The  framework  for  stanchions  and  partitions 
between  tlie  cows  are  all  of  galvanized  iron  pipe 


with  galvanized  steel  stanchions.  All  interior 
finished  in  cement. 

The  building  being  one  story  contains  no  post, 
the  only  surface  in  the  barn  to  collect  dust  be- 
ing the  top  of  the  li/^"  pipework. 

In  such  a  barn  as  this  with  the  care  they 
take  the  owners  say  they  have  been  able  to  pro- 
duce milk  that  has  shown  no  bacteria  growth 
in  samples  taken  from  the  wagon  in  New 
York  City  and  has  averaged  100  for  weeks. 
This  will  be  better  appreciated  when  it  is  un- 
derstood that  the  IMilk  Commission  of  New  York 
allows  30,000  bacteria  per  C.  C.  for  certified 
milk. 

HILLCREST  DAIRY  BARN. 

Hillcrest  Farm  Sanitary  Dairy,  located  in 
Southwestern  IMissouri,  has  been  recently  built 
from  plans  of  the  owner  (see  Figs.  254,  255, 
256,  257  and  258),  after  visiting  a  number  of 
the  celebrated  dairy  barns  of  the  country,  em- 
bracing the  best  features  of  a  great  many  of 
these  modern  structures,  and  including  these  at 
a  comparatively  moderate  cost. 

The  great  drawback  of  the  sanitary  dairy 
barn  to  the  average  farmer  is  the  heavy  expense. 
No  system  of  drainage  by  iron  pipes  and  ce- 
ment, concrete  floors  and  mangers,  properly 
built,  can  be  cheap,  but  the  Hillcrest  idea  as  a 
model  dairy  barn  is  to  show  that  the  essential 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


141 


]l 


FIG.    253.      BROOKSIDE    DAIRY    BARX     ( ARR.VXGEMEXT    OF    GROUXD    FLOOR). 


features  of  sanitation  are  not  out  of  the  reach 
of  the  dairy  farmer.  Tlie  especial  idea  running 
through  this  plan  is  the  one  of  convenience  and 
economy  in  feeding  and  caring  for  the  stock. 

It  will  be  noticed  tliat  the  silage  car  can  run 
through  the  feed  barn  to  the  entry  between  the 
rows  of  cows  {Fig.  255)  without  the  feeder  be- 
ing exposed  to  the  weather.  With  heads  to  the 
center,  the  cows  are  fed  in  more  uniform  time, 
and  the  feed  is  easier  swept  back  to  the  manger 
if  it  is  scattered  than  if  a  single  line  of  cows 
faced  outward  to  the  Avail.  Then  the  cows  are 
spared  the  glare  of  light  facing  the  sun  against 
the  windows. 


The  King  system  of  ventilation  gives  entire 
freedom  from  odors  in  the  barn,  and  in  addition 
to  the  pure  air,  a  temperature  of  not  less  than 
40°  is  maintained,  the  outside  thermometer 
standing  at  zero. 

The  barn  is  lined  with  building  paper  and 
ceiled;  windows  on  each  side  and  end  give 
abundance  of  light,  so  essential  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  bacteria  or  germs  which  contaminate  the 
milk. 

The  cows  always  enter  at  the  same  door,  and 
on  being  turned  out  take  the  opposite  door, 
which  avoids  confusion  and  crowding. 

The  watering  system  has  been  changed  from 


FIG.     254.       HILLCREST     DAIRY     BARN      (ELEVATION). 


142 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     255.      HILLCHEST    DAIRY    BARN     (CENTER    ALLEY). 


using  the  continuous  manger  for  watering  be- 
cause the  cows  at  the  end  of  the  string  became 
very  nervous  waiting  for  the  water  to  reach 
them,  and  the  watering  was  only  at  set  times. 


Now,  by  a  system  of  automatic  water  boxes,  reg- 
ulated by  a  tank  and  float  valve,  water  stands 
before  each  cow  all  of  the  time,  a  very  important 
item  where  cows  are  kept  up  during  cold  weath- 


FIG.     256.      HILLCREST    DAIRY    BARN      (INFIRMARY). 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


143 


I'IG.     1.57.       IIILLCREST    DAIRY    BARN     (PIPING). 


er.     The  milk  flow  was  at  once  improved  when  each  man  being  responsible  for  the  condition  of 

the  cows  had  access  to  water  at  their  desire  to  his  cows.     He  must  weigh  up  his  milk  before 

drink.  turning  it  into  the  funnel  in  the  wall  of  the 

The  milking  is  done  in  sections  of  10  cows,  dairy,  whence  it  passes  over  the  aerator,  and 


:CD 


€J  i 


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oo.J«r.  .  5 


'1    i- 

1 1 

■ 

■! T 

!:  'i 

Hi! 

'■1i 

V-  \ 

~1 

h 

i 

F 

i 

X      L 

FIG.  258.   HILLCREST  DAIRY  BARN  (FLOOR  PLAN). 


144 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


is  at  once  chilled  to  50\  The  milk  then 
being  bottled  and  sealed  is  set  in  the  icing  room 
ready  for  delivery. 

The  cleaning  of  the  stable  is  done  by  remov- 
ing the  solid  manure  with  wheelbarrows  to  the 
spreader  standing  in  an  adjoining  lot,  whence 
it  is  scattered  as  directed,  daily.  The  liquid 
manure  washed  out  of  the  gutters  by  hose  into 


The  "Infirmary"  is  provided  with  eight  box- 
stalls  for  cows  during  calving.  {Fig.  256.)  On 
arrival  calves  are  at  once  removed  to  the  nursery 
and  fed  the  first  10  days  on  whole  milk  from 
a  bucket.  Subsequently,  separator  milk  and  oil 
meal  is  the  ration.  The  fact  that  never  a  calf 
has  died  on  Hillcrest  Farm,  except  three  from 
accidental  causes,  speaks  for  the  advantage  of 


FIG.    259.      BARN    FOR    YOUNG    DAIRY    STOCK     (ELEVATION). 


an  iron  pipe  sewer  system,  properly  trapped  into 
a  cistern  away  from  the  barn  and  pumped  into 
a  tank  wagon,  is  sprinkled  over  the  fields,  the 
most  valued  of  the  fertilizer  thus  being  saved. 

Water  is  supplied  from  a  deep  well  for  the 
dairy  from  a  filtered  cistern  for  the  barn  use. 
It  is  pumped  from  a  lake,  fed  by  springs,  into 
a  cistern  by  a  2  H.  P.  gasoline  engine.  This 
water  is  clear  and  cool  and  gives  abundance  of 
water  for  flushing  the  floors.  The  floors  in  the 
cow  barn  are  of  cement,  the  stalls  being  cov- 
ered with  an  inlaid  planking  which  prevents  the 
injury  to  front  knees  and  to  udders,  heretofore 
experienced,  when  the  cows  lie  on  the  cold,  wet 
cement  floor. 


a  sanitary  care  of  young  calves.     Scours  has 
never  existed  in  the  herd. 

The  silos  are  two  in  number,  16'  x  32',  with 
cement  bases  4'  deep,  giving  36'  depth  in  all. 
(See  Fig.  258.)  These  are  designed  to  feed 
the  herd  for  8  months.  Adjoining  the  silos  and 
also  under  continuous  roof,  are  the  silage  cutter, 
also  the  feed  mill,  which  furnishes,  apart  from 
bran  and  oil  meal,  the  ground  concentrate.  An 
experiment  is  being  made  with  alfalfa.  If  this 
proves  successful,  the  silage  and  alfalfa  will 
reduce  to  the  minimum  the  expense  of  feeding 
for  milk.  At  the  present  cost  of  hay  of  all  kinds 
the  problem  of  roughage  for  those  who  do  not 
have  the  fortunate  addition  of  a  silo  to  their 
equipment,  becomes  a  very  dear  one. 


FIG.    260.     BARN    FOR   YOUNG   DAIRY    STOCK    (FLOOR   PLAN). 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


145 


FIG.     261.      BARN    FOR     TOUXG    D.MRY     STOCK      (STALLS). 


FIG.    262.     BARN    FOR   YOUNG   DAIRY    STOCK     (CENTER    ALLEY). 


146 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


BARN  FOR  YOUNG  DAIRY  STOCK. 

Architects'  plans  and  photographs  shown  in 
Figs.  259,  260,  261,  262  and  263  are  for  a  barn 
built  principally  for  the  housing  of  young  dairy 
stock.  There  are  eight  roomy  box-stalls  and 
32  ordinary  stalls.  The  flooring  where  the  cat- 
tle stand  is  plank  over  cement.     (See  Fig.  263.) 


separator  and  power  room  is  located  behind  the 
inclined  road  leading  to  the  upper  doors. 
Economy  of  lumber  and  convenience  in  feeding 
are  claimed  for  round  barns. 

A  NEBRASKA  DAIRY  BARN. 

A  Nebraska  farmer,  asking  for  a  plan  for  an 
up-to-date  dairy  barn  to  hold  40  cows  and  eight 


FIG.    263.     BARN   FOR   YOUNG    DAIRY    STOCK    (FRAMEWORK). 


DAIRY  BARN. 


The  round  dairy  barn  shown  in  Fig.  264  is 
90'  in  diameter,  having  stanchions  on  the  ground 
floor  for  about  75  cows.  A  round  silo  holding 
nearly  400  tons  extends  from  the  ground  to  the 


horses,  has  a  bank  facing  south.    He  is  thus  ad- 
vised : 

We  will  use  the  bank  by  building  a  wall  5' 
high,  as  shown  in  Fig.  265,  and  back  about  5' 
will  build  a  second  retaining  wall  of  concrete. 
The  arrangement  of  the  two  walls  will  let  light 
and  air  into  the  basement,  and  by  sloping  the 
earth  away  from  the  inner  wall  toward  the  tile 
drain  shown  the  basement  will  not  be  damp. 


^^^ 


FIG.    264.       A    ROUND    DAIRY    BARN     (ELEVATION). 

roof  under  the  cupola.  There  are  no  cross  beams 
except  those  supporting  the  floor  above  the  cows, 
so  nothing  is  in  the  way  when  storing  hay.    The 


46    16  10 

FIG.    265.       A   NEBRASKA    DAIRY   BARN    (FRAMEWORK). 


DAIRY  BARNS. 


147 


Provide  abundance  of  windows  on  both  sides. 
The  floor  will  all  be  of  concrete.  Observe  that 
under  the  cow  the  floor  is  2"  lower  where  her 
front  feet  stand  than  back,  and  with  a  distinct 
offset.  This  holds  her  bedding  and  enables  her 
to  lie  down  or  kneel  down  with  comfort.  The 
raised  walk  in  the  feeding  alley  is  best.  Refer- 
ring to  the  ground  plan,  Fig.  266,  it  is  seen  that 
there  is  a  wide  passage  between  the  cows  where 
a  manure  spreader  may  be  driven  if  desired, 


cow  part,  using  sliding  doors,  as  horses  re- 
quire more  air  and  endure  more  cold  than 
dairy  cows.  There  are  several  systems  of  venti- 
lation if  abundant  windows  are  used,  each  one 
hinging  at  the  bottom  and  opening  inwardly,  and 
if  they  are  intelligently  managed  the  cows  may 
have  fresh  air  and  not  suffer  from  cold.  If  the 
King  system  is  adopted  the  openings  leading  to 
the  loft  must  be  kept  carefully  closed,  else  it  will 
not  work.     The  King  system  is  the  best  known 


WALL  5'    HIGH   WITH    0  F  FSET 


OVERHEAD      TRACK    AND      CARBIER 


MANGER    30' 


TRENCH     6*    D  E  t"P 


PAssflef  10' 

TIIENCH    6' 


OVERHEAD    TRACK    AND     FEED 


C'"""t^ 


LEW  6TH  118'     Wl  OTH  36' 
FIG.  266.  A  NEBRASKA  DAIRY  BARN  (GROUND  FLOOR). 


FIG.  267.   A  NEBRASKA  DAIRY  BARN  (HAY  MOW). 


though  it  will  be  wise  to  put  an  overhead  car- 
rier system  there  for  use  when  it  is  not  con- 
venient to  use  the  manure  spreader.  There 
is  no  feedroom  on  the  bottom  floor,  spouts 
from  above  coming  down  in  the  feed  alleys, 
making  it  unnecessary  to  have  a  feedroom 
below.      Close    the    horse    part    off    from    the 


for  a  dairy  barn.  A  bridge  will  lead  to  the  mow 
floor.  Hay  will  be  unloaded  from  this  place. 
"Wagons  must  be  backed  out.  A  feedroom  is 
provided  in  which  may  be  many  or  few  bins, 
depending  on  the  needs  of  the  user.  The  silo 
is  designed  to  hold  40  pounds  per  day  of  silage 
for  40  cows  for  six  months. 


5WINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


What  would  be  the  business  future  of  the 
swine  breeder  whose  hogs  were  compelled  to  be 
exposed  to  tlie  cold  blasts  of  winter  or  the  glar- 
ing sun  of  summer  ?  What  would  their  condition 
be  if  they  were  obliged  to  eat  and  sleep  in  filth  ? 
What  would  the  pig  crop  be  if  the  sows  were 
allowed  to  farrow  in  the  fence  corner  some  cold 
stormy  night  with  only  the  canopy  of  heaven 
to  shelter  them?  Answers  to  these  questions 
will  urge  the  proper  equipment  of  the  farm  for 
the  breeding  of  pure-bred  swine.  How  exten- 
sive the  equipment  should  be  will  depend  of 
course  on  the  number  of  animals  to.  be  carried 
on  the  farm  and  the  amount  of  money  to  be 
invested. 

First  a  swine  breeder  should  have  necessary 
buildings  for  housing  the  herd,  the  feed,  the 
apparatus  for  mixing  and  preparing  the  feed  and 
the  procuring  of  the  necessary  water.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  buildings  for  this  purpose,  many 
of  which  are  satisfactory.  Breeders  have  dif- 
ferent ideas  regarding  this  matter,  many  pre- 
ferring the  large  gloomy  hoghouse  or  building 
where  the  whole  herd  may  be  kept  under  one 
roof,  and  where  the  bedding,  feed,  w^ater  and 
everything  pertaining  to  the  comfort  of  the  ani- 
mals may  be  kept  convenient  and  used  with  the 
least  labor,  and  where  all  the  work  in  caring 
for  the  herd  may  be  done  under  cover.  This 
plan  has  many  advantages  and  where  adopted 
the  buildings  should  be  so  arranged  that  as  much 
sunlight  as  possible  may  be  admitted  to  the  pens 
and  feeding  floors.  There  are  other  breeders 
who  prefer  the  outdoor  individual  house  large 
enough  for  only  one  sow  and  her  litter,  with  a 
grass  lot  of  at  least  one-half  acre  where  the  sow 
and  pigs  may  always  be  by  themselves.  This 
latter  plan  will  of  course  occupy  considerable 
land,  at  least  where  the  herd  is  large,  and  will 
necessitate  considerable  fencing  into  lots  along 
either  side  of  a  lane  and  the  hauling  of  all  the 
feed  to  the  different  lots  at  each  feeding  time. 
But  this  plan  insures  both  abundant  pasture  for 
the  sow  and  litter  as  well  as  plenty  of  room  for 
the  necessary  exercise  and  has  the  advantage  of 
always  affording  clean  quarters  for  the  hogs  and 
freedom  from  disturbance  for  sows  farrowing. 

There  are  many  different  plans  for  both  the 
large  houses  and  small  individual  houses,  from 
which  may  be  selected  whatever  best  pleases  the 
breeder.    As  much  or  little  expense  may  be  put 


into  the  building  of  hoghouses  as  the  breeder 
desires. 

All  buildings  for  breeding  and  feeding  swine 
should  be  strongly  built  and  made  of  good  ma- 
terial, and  all  should  have  floors  both  for  feed- 
ing and  sleeping  apartments.  Floors  made 
of  wood  are  preferable  in  the  sleeping  quarters, 
being  warmer  and  more  easily  kept  dry.  Where 
the  large  hoghouse  is  used  many  prefer  the  feed- 
ing floor  to  be  constructed  of  concrete  or  cement 
and  the  sleeping  floor  of  wood.  Where  the  build- 
ing is  used  for  the  feeding  of  a  large  number 
of  swine  together  some  prefer  the  feeding  floor 
to  be  constructed  along  the  outside  of  the  build- 
ing, and  in  such  instances  the  floor  shoukl  be 
constructed  of  concrete  or  cement,  raised  slight- 
ly above  the  surrounding  surface.  A  cement 
feeding  floor  of  this  kind  properly  made  would 
])e  practically  indestructible  and  Avould  be  eas- 
ily kept  clean  either  by  sweeping  or  flushing 
with  water. 

Where  the  individual  system  of  houses  is  used 
there  is  no  necessity  for  a  feeding  floor  except 
a  small  one  about  8'  x  8'  in  one  corner  of  the 
lot  most  convenient  to  feed,  and  this  only  for 
the  use  of  the  litter  where  the  pigs  may  be  fed 
secure  from  the  intrusion  of  the  mother.  She 
may  be  fed  near  them  from  a  single  trough. 

Where  the  individual  houses  are  used  it  will 
be  necessary  to  have  a  feedhouse  or  building  so 
arranged  that  all  feed  may  be  kept  there  in 
separate  bins,  where  water  may  be  easily  ob- 
tained either  from  an  elevated  tank  or  from  a 
pump  in  the  building  and  where  the  mixing  of 
the  feed  may  be  done.  With  this  system  the 
easiest  way  to  distribute  the  feed  to  the  various 
lots  is  to  use  a  wagon  not  to  exceed  12"  in 
height  from  the  ground,  and  large  enough  to 
hold  three  or  four  barrels  of  feed  set  upon  it. 
Such  a  wagon  with  a  pair  of  shafts  and  a  gentle 
horse  kept  for  the  purpose  of  hauling  all  feed 
and  water  to  the  different  lots  make  it  very  easy 
for  the  feeder  to  care  for  100  or  200  hogs  in  a 
short  time  with  very  little  labor. 

Where  the  feeding  is  all  done  in  one  building 
or  house  a  feed  carrier  suspended  from  a  steel 
track  above  the  alley  is  the  most  convenient  way 
to  handle  the  feed,  as  it  requires  but  very  little 
effort  to  carry  a  large  amount  of  feed  in  this 
manner  along  the  alley. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  troughs  on  the  mar- 


148 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


149 


ket.  Some  of  them  are  good,  others  better  and 
some  absolutely  worthless.  Old-fashioned  wood- 
en troughs  are  about  past.  They  are  expensive 
because  so  soon  destroyed,  and  are  always  damp 
and  convenient  for  animals  to  put  their  feet  in 
while  eating.  There  are  several  types  of  gal- 
vanized iron  troughs  as  well  as  two  or  three  cast 
iron  troughs.  One  of  the  latter  is  made  for 
animals  of  any  size  and  is  absolutely  unbreak- 
able. This  trough  weighs  122  pounds,  is  round 
and  accommodates  eight  animals,  and  whether 
small  or  large  animals  they  are  never  crowded, 
as  the  trough  forms  a  circle.  A  hog  or  a  pig 
can  not  get  his  feet  into  it,  for  the  reason  that 
he  eats  out  of  a  cup  just  large  enough  to  stick 
his  nose  in.  These  cups  are  filled  from  the  center 
in  a  receptacle  where  the  feed  falls  on  a  cone, 
thus  being  evenly  distributed  to  the  eight  indi- 
vidual cups  which  are  separated  by  a,  heavy  iron 
rod,  and  the  pigs  can  eat  only  from  the  cup 
before  them.  These  troughs  are  always  clean, 
having  no  place  for  the  feed  to  lodge  and  be- 
come foul.  This  style  of  trough  possibly  is  not 
suited  to  pens  along  a  feeding  alley  in  a  build- 
ing, but  for  outdoor  use  it  is  admiral)le  for  feed- 
ing slop.  The  matter  of  feed  troughs  is  of 
great  importance,  as  all  feed  fed  in  the  condi- 
tion of  a  slop  or  mush  should  be  fed  in  good 
troughs  easily  kept  clean.  No  feed  should  ever 
be  fed  on  the  ground,  unless  it  may  be  ear  corn 
where  the  ground  is  frozen  or  is  hard  and 
smooth. 

A  breeding  crate  should  always  be  used.  This 
is  an  important  matter.  By  this  method  of 
breeding  the  number  on  the  ear  tag  or  the  ear 
mark  may  be  taken  and  entered  in  a  book  at 
the  time  of  breeding,  giving  day  and  date.  There 
are  several  kinds  of  breeding  crates  and  the 
breeder  can  easily  learn  which  is  best  for  his 
purpose. 

Another  necessary  fixture  on  the  swine  breed- 
ing farm  is  a  good  dipping  tank.  This  is  of 
great  value  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  disin- 
fecting swine,  destroying  vermin  and  mange  but 
in  keeping  the  skin  and  hair  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion. Such  a  tank  sunk  into  the  ground  with  a 
chute  from  an  incline  where  the  animals  slide 
down  into  it  and  have  to  swim  through  the  dip 
will  pay  on  any  pure-bred  swine  farm.  It  is  of 
great  value  in  preventing  disease. 

Another  valuable  appurtenance  is  a  first-class 
feed  steamer.  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
while  cooked  or  steamed  feed  is  of  no  advantage 
so  far  as  economy  or  nutriment  is  concerned,  it 
is  of  great  value  in  the  feeding  of  young  pigs 
during  the  cold  months,  as  young  pigs  fed  on 
warm  feed  either  cooked  or  scalded  with  hot 
water  thrive  almost  as  well  during  cold  months 
as  through  the  warm  weather.    It  is  also  of  value 


ID  feeding  brood  sows  during  the  winter  season, 
as  a  mixture  of  clover  hay,  or  where  possible 
alfalfa,  run  through  a  feed  cutter  and  mixed 
with  meal,  bran  or  middlings  and  steamed  or 
mixed  with  hot  water  is  an  ideal  feed  for  brood 
sows. 

MODERN  HOGHOUSES. 

The  following  is  contributed  by  Prof.  "Wm. 
Deitrich  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station : 

In  order  to  raise  swine  most  successfully  in  a 
country  with  a  cold  or  varied  climate,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  have  some  kind  of  a  hoghouse.  The 
question  that  first  presents  itself  is  what  kind 
shall  it  be?  In  studying  the  swine  industry 
from  the  market  standpoint  and  from  the 
breeder's  standpoint  it  appears  that  for  greatest 
success  in  the  swine  business  it  is  desiral)le  to 
produce  two  litters  a  year  from  mature  sows 
and  to  have  these  farrowed  so  that  they  can  be 
put  on  the  market  at  the  most  favorable  time. 

Following  is  a  general  discussion  of  the  loca- 
tion and  construction  of  hogl:ouses  and  a  de- 
tailed description  and  method  of  operation  of  a 
hoghouse  that  has  recently  been  planned  and 
built  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 

The  proper  location  of  a  hoghouse  or  shelter 
of  any  kind  for  swine  is  one  of  the  first  essen- 
tials  to  success  in  swine  husbandry. 

In  providing  shelter  for  swine,  as  well  as  for 
other  classes  of  live  stock,  surroundings  sliould 
be  furnished  that  conform  as  near  to  nature  as 
the  improved  condition  of  the  animals  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  owner  will  permit.  Swine  in 
the  wild  state  inhabit  the  forest  where  shade, 
water,  protection  from  cold  winds  and  natural 
soil  are  abundant,  and  where  they  may  select 
dry  or  damp  localities  as  they  please.  The  best 
surroundings  then  for  swine  are  those  that  will 
satisfy  their  natural  desires,  but  so  modified 
and  improved  as  to  promote  the  largest  financial 
results. 

The  best  location  for  a  hoghouse  therefore  is 
one  that  is  well  drained  and  well  lighted,  and 
one  that  will  permit  access  to  pasture,  to  good 
shade  and  to  a  stream  of  running  water  that  is 
free  from  disease  germs,  and  where  also  there 
are  opportunities  for  making  wallows  in  clean 
mud. 

If  the  building  can  be  placed  on  a  sandy  or 
gravelly  soil  it  will  afford  better  drainage  than 
a  clay,  silt  or  peaty  soil  would  furnish.  Light 
and  shade  are  desirable  for  reasons  that  are  ap- 
parent to  everyone. 

Pasture  should  be  accessible,  as  considerable 
food  is  obtained  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of 
roots,  worms  and  insects,  as  well  as  many  ma- 
terials that  are  not  foods,  but  are  necessary  to' 


150 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     268.      BONHAM     HOGHOUSE    SET    UP. 


the  health  of  the  pigs.  A  limestone  soil  is  pre- 
ferable because  the  water  from  such  a  soil  as 
well  as  the  soil  and  stones  themselves  furnish  the 
lime  that  is  so  essential  in  building  up  bone.  A 
rolling  pasture  is  preferable  because  it  furnishes 
better  drainage  and  a  form  of  exercise  that  is 


conducive  to  the  production  of  a  large  percent- 
age of  lean  meat.  It  also  tends  to  produce  strong 
legs  with  upright  pasterns,  which,  from  the 
breeder's  standpoint,  are  among  the  first  essen- 
tials of  a  good  hog. 

A  stream  of  pure  running  water  is  desirable, 


FIG.    269.     BONHAM    HOGHOUSE    TAKEN    DOWN. 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


151 


for  then  drinking  water  in  the  best  form  will  be 
available  at  all  times  and  will  be  more  whole- 
some than  it  would  be  were  it  supplied  in  a 
trough  where  it  is  bound  to  become  more  or  less 
warm,  stagnant  and  foul.  If  there  is  no  nat- 
ural stream  at  hand  water  pumped  from  a  well 
by  a  windmill  or  other  motive  power  will  supply 
the  need.  A  clean  mud  wallow  is  enjoyed  more 
by  swine  in  the  summer  time  than  any  one  other 
condition  that  may  be  furnished  them.  It  keeps 
them  cool,  destroys  lice  and  keeps  the  skin  in  a 
good  healthy  condition. 

The  two  general  classes  of  hoghouse  most  in 
use  are  individual  houses  and  large  houses  with 
individual  pens.  A  hoghouse  that  is  best  for 
one  man  under  his  conditions  and  manner  of 
handling  swine  may  not  be  best  for  another 
where  the  conditions  and  manner  of  handling 
differ.  This  difference  is  due  to  the  originality 
of  different  breeders  who  have  solved  the  prob- 
lem in  regard  to  hoghouses  to  suit  their  individ- 
ual tastes  and  conveniences. 

Individual  hoghouses,  or  cots,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  are  built  in  many  different 
ways.  Some  are  built  with  four  upright  walls 
and  a  shed  roof,  each  of  which  (the  walls  and 
roof)  being  a  separate  piece  can  easily  be  taken 
down  and  replaced,  making  the  moving  of  these 
small  houses  or  cots  an  easy  matter.  This  is 
shown  by  Figs.  268  and  269.  The  primary 
object  of  this  pighouse  is  to  secure  shelter, 
warmth,  sunshine  and  pure  air  at  reasonable 
cost,  and  the  secondary  object  is  to  have  it  as 
handy  for  feeding  and  handling  the  sows  and 


pigs  as  possible.     L.  N.  Bonham  of  Ohio  per- 
fected this  plan. 

This  house  is  5'x6'.  Four  scantlings  2"x2" 
X  12'  and  two  scantlings  2"  x  4"  x  12'  will  make 
the  frame  and  roof  supports.  The  bottom  rail 
is  2"x4",  the  others  2"x2".  The  three  pieces 
for  the  roof  are  cut  6'  6"  to  give  a  3"  projection 
of  roof  beyond  the  sides.  Fig.  268  shows  the 
house  set  up  and  the  drop  window  partly  down. 
Fig.  269  shows  the  top  off.  The  construction  is 
readily  seen.  After  the  house  is  ready  to  set 
together  have  the  floor  made  just  large  enough 
to  let  the  sides  of  the  house  set  outside  the  floor. 
The  cost  of  this  house  is  about  $5.  It  pays  to 
paint  the  roof  every  three  years  but  the  sides 
will  last  without  paint  as  long  as  the  roof  is 
painted.  Taken  down  each  fall  and  spring  and 
whitewashed  and  set  up  against  a  fence  or  in  a 
shed  until  needed  it  will  give  long  service.  Other 
individual  houses  are  built  with  two  sides  sloping 
in  toward  the  top  so  as  to  form  the  roof  as  in 
Fig.  271.  These  are  built  on  skids  and  when 
necessary  can  be  moved  as  a  whole  by  being 
drawn  by  a  horse.  They  are  built  in  several 
different  styles ;  some  have  a  window  in  the  front 
end  above  the  floor,  while  all  may  have  a  small 
door  in  the  rear  end  near  the  apex  for  ventilat- 
ing purpose.  These  are  also  built  in  different 
sizes.  Indeed,  there  are  about  as  many  forms 
of  cots  as  there  are  individuals  using  them.  The 
form  in  which  these  houses  or  cots  are  built  is 
of  little  significance  so  long  as  the  general  prin- 
ciples pertaining  to  the  health  of  the  animals 
and  the  convenience  of  the  breeder  are  observed. 


FIG.      270.       A     LARGK     HOGHOUSE      (ELEVATION). 


152 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


The  arguments  in  favor  of  this  type  of  house 
for  swine  are  that  each  sow  at  farrowing  time 
may  be  kept  alone  and  away  from  all  disturb- 
ance ;  that  each  litter  of  pigs  may  be  kept  and 
fed  by  itself,  consequently  there  will  not  be  too 
large  a  number  of  pigs  in  a  common  lot;  that 
these  houses  may  be  placed  at  the  farther  end 
of  the  feedlot,  thus  compelling  the  sow  and 
pigs  to  take  exercise,  especially  in  winter,  when 
they  come  to  the  feed  trough  at  the  front  end 
of  the  lot ;  that  the  danger  of  spreading  disease 
among  the  herd  is  at  a  minimum ;  and  in  case 
the  place  occupied  by  the  cot  becomes  unsani- 
tary it  may  be  moved  to  a  clean  location. 

Although  individual  houses  have  certain  char- 
acteristics or  advantages  in  their  favor,  large 
houses,  if  properly  built,  also  have  some  points 
of  advantage,  and  these  are  good  sanitation, 
serviceability,  safet}^  in  farrowing,  ease  in  han- 
dling hogs,  and  large  pastures,  involving  little 
expense  for  fences. 

In  order  to  be  sanitary  a  hoghouse  should 
admit  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  to  the  floor  of 
all  the  pens  and  exclude  cold  drafts  in  winter, 
be  dry,  free  from  dust,  well  ventilated  and  ex- 
clude hot  sun  during  the  summer. 

Fig.  270  shows  a  hoghouse  built  with  this 
purpose  in  view\  The  building  is  30'  wide  with 
an  8'  alley  running  lengthwise  through  the  mid- 
dle, between  two  rows  of  pens.  It  stands  length- 
wise east  and  w^est  with  the  windows  on  the  south 
side.  The  important  factor  to  consider  in  this 
connection  is  the  height  of  the  windows  repre- 
sented at  E  and  D  in  connection  with  the  width 
and  manner  of  construction  of  the  building. 
The  "svindow  E  is  so  placed  that  at  noon  of  the 
shortest  day  of  the  year,  the  ray  of  light  which 
passes  through  the  upper  part  will  fall  upon 
the  floor  of  the  south  side  pen  on  the  opposite 
side  from  the  window.  This  allows  the  total 
amount  of  light  coming  through  the  window  at 
this  season  of  the  year  and  this  time  of  the  day 
to  fall  upon  the  floor  w'ithin  the  pen.  In  the 
morning  and  in  the  afternoon  when  the  sun  is 
not  at  its  highest  point,  a  part  or  all  of  this 
beam  of  light  will  pass  beyond  the  pen.  Con- 
sequently, during  the  late  winter  months,  there 
will  be  a  maximum  amount  of  sunlight  on  the 
floor  of  the  pen. 

The  lower  part  of  the  window  D  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  building  performs  the  same  func- 
tion for  the  pen  on  the  north  side  of  the  alley 
as  does  the  window  E  for  the  pen  on  the  south 
side.  By  this  arrangement  of  windows  there  is 
possible  a  maximum  amount  of  sunlight  on  the 
floor  of  the  pens  in  winter  which  will  serve  to 
warm  the  interior  of  the  house  and  especially 
the  beds  during  the  latter  months  of  winter, 
thus  making  it  possible  to  have  pigs  farrowed 


very  early  in  the  season.  Sunlight  not  only 
warms  and  dries  the  building,  but  destroys  dis- 
ease germs,  thus  making  the  building  both  warm 
and  sanitary.  Sanitation  is  further  augmented 
by  the  upper  part  of  the  window  D  which,  when 
open,  acts  as  a  ventilator.  It  is  supplied  with 
weights  so  it  can  be  opened  and  closed  at  will 
by  an  attendant  while  standing  on  the  floor  of 
the  alley. 

To  have  this  arrangement  of  windows  in  the 
latitude  already  noted  it  is  necessary  to  have  the 
top  of  the  window  E,  which  throws  light  into 
the  pen  on  the  south  side,  5'  6"  from  the  floor. 
The  upper  window,  which  throws  light  into  the 
pen  on  the  north  side,  is  longer,  but  a  point  in 
this  window  the  same  distance  above  the  lower 
end  as  the  height  of  the  window  E  should  be 
9'  8"  from  the  floor.  This  necessitates  a  flat  roof 
for  the  part  of  the  building  south  of  the  alley, 
which  must  necessarily  be  made  of  some  mate- 
rial that  will  shed  M'ater  at  a  slight  pitch.  The 
wall  on  the  north  side  of  the  building  is  made 
as  high  as  that  on  the  south  side,  but  the  roof 
on  the  north  side  and  alley  is  made  steeper  so 
as  to  have  more  air  space  and  good  ventilation. 
This  part  of  the  roof,  then,  may  be  made  of 
shingles. 

Dryness  should  be  furnished  by  thorough 
drainage ;  freedom  from  dust  by  sprinkling  with 
water,  and  the  rays  of  direct  sunlight  should  be 
prevented  from  entering  the  pens  during  the 
hot  part  of  summer  days,  which  in  the  men- 
tioned hoghouse  is  done  by  the  manner  of  con- 
struction of  the  building,  the  lower  window  be- 
ing shaded  by  the  eaves  and  the  rays  passing 
through  the  upper  window  fall  upon  the  floor 
of  the  alley. 

In  order  to  be  most  serviceable  a  hoghouse 
should  be  constructed  so  that  it  can  be  used 
every  day  in  the  year.  If  this  can  be  done,  it  is 
permissible  to  spend  more  money  in  the  con- 
struction than  would  be  warranted  were  the 
building  to  be  used  only  a  few  months  during 
the  year.  In  order  to  be  an  economizer  of  labor 
the  house  should  be  planned  so  that  the  largest 
amount  of  work  may  be  performed  with  the 
smallest  amount  of  labor,  which  with  the  pres- 
ent scarcity  of  labor  is  a  very  important  factor. 

Farrowing  pens  should  be  supplied  with 
fenders  which  prevent  the  sows  crushing  the 
pigs  and  should  be  built  so  that  the  attendant 
may  lend  assistance  if  necessary  both  with  con- 
venience and  safety.  By  having  all  the  hogs 
under  one  roof  handling  becomes  simpler  and 
in  case  of  bad  weather  much  more  convenient. 

An  argument  that  has  been  advanced  against 
tlie  large  hoghouse  is  that  by  having  a  large 
number  of  brood  sows  in  such  close  proximity 
to  each  other,  if  one  is  disturbed  or  molested  in 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


153 


any  way  all  the  others  will  become  fretful,  and 
when  feeding  is  commenced  at  one  end  all  the 
rest  will  become  uneasy  and  injure  their  litters. 
This  argument  may  hold  where  the  partitions 
are  solid  board  fences,  but  by  the  arrangement 
to  be  described  the  sows  can  see  one  another  and 
see  what  is  going  on  about  them,  and  not  being 
strange  to  one  another  or  the  attendant  will  not 
be  disturbed  to  so  great  an  extent.  If  the  feed- 
ing is  done  regularly  and  in  the  same  order  each 
day,  the  sows  or  pigs  soon  become  accustomed 
to  the  system  and  wait  patiently  for  their  turn. 
Furthermore,  by  this  arrangement  of  wire  parti- 
tions the  little  pigs  are  more  easily  tamed  and 


FIG.      271.       AN      INDIVIDUAL      HOGHOUSE. 

will  do  better  because  they  will  not  become 
frightened  every  time  a  person  passes  the  pen. 

By  having  a  large  hoghouse  the  hogs  can  be 
kept  together  and  allowed  to  go  in  a  drove  from 
the  hoghouse  to  the  pasture  or  to  any  other 
available  field  on  the  farm,  and  with  very  little 
training  each  sow  with  her  litter  will  return  to 
her  own  pen  at  night,  thus  necessitating  few 
pastures. 

In  Fig.  273  is  submitted  the  ground  plan  of 
the  hoghouse  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  270.  It  is 
120'  long  bv  30'  wide  and  is  represented  in  the 
figure  hy  6  8  T  U.  X  Y  is  the  alley  which 
runs  lengthwise  through  the  middle  of  the  build- 
ing and  is  8'  wide.  This  permits  of  driving 
through  the  building  with  a  wagon,  which  allows 
the  feed  and  bedding  to  be  hauled  in  where  it  is 
needed  and  the  manure  to  be  loaded  on  the 
wagon  directly  from  the  pens  and  hauled  to  the 
fields. 

The  doors  at  either  end  of  the  building  and 
one  across  the  alley  shutting  off  the  pigs  from 
the  rest  of  the  building  are  shown  by  R.  The 
pens  A  are  10'  wide  and  11'  deep.      Each  pen 


has  a  doorway  31  leading  to  the  outside  which 
is  opened  by  a  door  sliding  upwards.  There  is 
also  a  door  N  opening  to  the  alley  on  the  inside. 
This  door  is  so  hung  that  when  it  is  open  it  will 
turn  the  pigs  toward  the  front  end  of  the  house 
where  they  are  to  be  weighed.  It  also  permits  of 
changing  pigs  from  one  pen  to  another  pen  and 
is  of  easy  access  for  the  attendant.  L  represents 
the  trough  which  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  pen 
next  to  the  alley  and  which  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  swinging  panel  above  this  trough,  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  273,  makes  feeding  a  very  easy 
and  convenient  operation.  The  fender  in  the  pen 
is  shown  by  K  in  Fig.  273.  This  consists  of  a  2" 
tubular  iron  bar  placed  on  iron  posts  of  the 
same  dimensions  and  set  in  concrete  in  the  floor. 
This  bar  is  placed  8"  or  9"  above  the  floor  and 
about  6"  from  the  wall  and  is  to  prevent  the 
sows  crushing  the  pigs  at  farrowing  time.  The 
sow  will  necessarily  make  her  bed  in  this  cor- 
ner, as  the  other  three  corners  are  occupied,  two 
of  which  have  doors  and  the  other  the  feed 
trough. 

D  in  Fig.  273  shows  the  platform  scale  on 
wiiicli  the  pigs  are  to  be  weighed  as  desired. 
This  scale  is  fitted  with  a  frame  and  the  door 
on  the  next  side  to  the  alley  shown  at  Q,  opens 
so  that  when  the  pigs  come  down  the  alley  it 
will  facilitate  turning  them  upon  the  scales.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  scale  platform  is  a  smaller 
door  in  the  frame  which  opens  through  a  door 
P  of  the  building,  thus  allowing  the  pigs  to 
pass  from  the  scale  room  directly  to  the  out- 
side, where  there  may  be  a  loading  chute  lead- 
ing to  a  wagon. 

F  is  the  feed  mixing  room  in  which  are  feed 
bins  for  feeds  of  various  kinds  represented  by 
/.  There  is  also  a  door,  J,  leading  to  the  out- 
side from  this  room.  H  shows  the  hydrant  from 
which  water  is  obtained  for  mixing  slops,  water- 
ing hogs,  and  for  attaching  the  hose  to  sprinkle 
the  floors.  E  shows  the  stove  that  is  used  for 
heating  the  water  in  winter  for  mixing  slops. 

G  shows  the  office,  and  C  the  feed  bins  in 
which  the  feed  is  stored  as  it  is  hauled  to  the 
hoghouse.  The  opening  to  these  feed  bins  is 
from  the  main  alley  of  the  hoghouse  from  which 
they  are  filled  directly  from  the  wagon  as  the 
feed  is  brought  in.  The  feed  is  then  taken  out 
in  smaller  quantities  as  needed  and  put  into  the 
small  bins  in  the  feed  mixing  room  from  which 
it  is  weighed  out  to  the  pigs  at  feeding  time. 

B  shows  an  alley  which  leads  through  the 
door  T  to  the  yard  V  on  the  outside.  Opposite 
this  is  the  yard  Z.  These  two  yards  are  not 
connected  with  pens  on  the  inside  of  the  build- 
ing, but  are  used  as  board  pens  and  are  supplied 
with  separate  cots  and  feed  troughs  on  the  out- 
side.   The  rest  of  the  pens  on  the  outside  shown 


154 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


in  the  cut,  as  A,  are  of  the  same  width  as  the 
pen  inside  and  are  28'  long.  They  are  con- 
nected with  the  pens  on  the  inside  by  means  of 
the  doors  mentioned,  the  outer  end  opening  to 
the  lane  which  leads  to  the  pastures.  The  par- 
titions between  these  pens  on  the  outside  are 
made  of  two  lengths  of  common  fencing,  one 
16'  and  the  other  12'  long.  The  12'  length  is 
next  to  the  building  and  may  be  made  into  a 
gate  so  that  it  will  swing.  By  opening  all  these 
gates  and  swinging  them  one  way,  and  away 
from  the  building,  an  alley  is  made  along  the 
outside  of  the  building  in  case  it  is  not  desirable 
to  use  the  alley  in  the  building  for  taking  out 
the  manure.  But  this  is  not  so  convenient  as 
driving  through  the  alley  on  the  inside. 

There  is  a  4"  drain  tile  laid  from  each  pen 
in  the  building  to  the  main  lines  on  either  side, 
which  are  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  pens, 
leading  off  down  the  ravine.  The  tile  opens  up 
through  the  floor  of  the  pen  by  means  of  a  per- 
forated iron  disk  which  is  laid  in  the  bell  end 
of  a  length  of  sewer  pipe.  The  floor  is  made  to 
slope  toward  the  drain  so  that  it  can  be  flushed 
with  water. 

Fig.  272  shows  the  interior  section  of  the 
hoghouse  containing  the  pens.  All  the  gates 
and  partitions  on  the  interior  are  made  of  wire 
netting  panels.  Wire  is  considered  better  for 
this  purpose  than  lumber  for  several  reasons,  as 
follows : 

(1)  There  are  no  obstructions  to  light.  The 
rays  of  light  coming  through  the  windows  are 


not  prevented  from  reaching  the  floor  where 
they  are  most  needed ;  they  keep  the  floor  or  bed 
in  which  the  pigs  sleep  dry,  warm  and  disin- 
fected. 


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FIG.     273.       A    LARGE    HOGHOUSE     (GROUND    FLOOR). 


FIG.     272.      A    LARGE    HOGHOUSE     (iNTEiilOI!     AltKANGEMENT) . 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


155 


(2)  By  this  means  there  is  no  opportunity 
for  disease  germs  to  lodge  in  cracks  and  crevices 
or  to  be  harbored  in  the  shadow  of  solid  fences. 
In  case  the  hoghouse  should  ever  become  infected 
with  disease  germs  of  any  kind  it  can  be  disin- 
fected much  more  easily  and  thoroughly. 

(3)  Wire  partitions  allow  the  hogs  always  to 
be  within  sight  of  one  another  and  of  the  attend- 
ant. By  this  means  the  sows,  when  they  are 
shut  up  to  farrow,  will  not  become  estranged 
from  one  another,  and  will  not  be  so  likely  to 
fight  after  returning  to  a  common  pasture. 


r • — ~~" T "' 

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FIG.     274.        A     LARGE     HOGHOUSE     WITH     LOTS. 

Part  of  the  floor  of  the  hoghouse  is  made  of 
hard  brick  laid  on  side  in  the  pens  and  laid  on 
edge  in  the  alley;  the  remainder  is  of  cement. 
Lumber  is  not  used  because  being  necessarily 
laid  on  the  ground  to  prevent  cold  air  or  cold 
drafts  getting  beneath  the  "floor  it  would  rot 
out  too  quickly,  making  it  very  expensive.  Brick 
is  thought  to  be  a  little  warmer  in  winter  than 
cement  and  not  so  slippery,  but  both  are  being 
tried.  Brick  of  course  is  colder  in  winter  than 
is  lumber,  but  this  can  be  obviated  by  using  bed- 
ding or  by  making  an  overlay  (portable  floor) 
of  1"  lumber  for  the  corner  of  the  pen  where  the 
bed  is  made. 


The  hoghouse  is  divided  into  unit  lengths  of 
10'  each,  this  being  the  dimension  of  the  pens 
parallel  to  the  long  dimensions  of  the  building. 

Where  there  is  proper  drainage  an  earth  floor 
is  probably  the  best  kind  of  a  floor  in  a  hog- 
house, although  it  is  a  little  harder  to  keep  in 
repair.  Therefore,  by  omitting  the  floor,  tile 
drain  and.  eave  troughs,  the  building  still 
contains  all  the  essential  features  and  costs  ap- 
proximately $122  per  unit  length  of  10'  which 
contains  two  pens.  If  the  carpenter  work  and 
painting  can  be  done  with  the  regular  farm  help 
at  odd  times  when  there  is  no  other  employment 
at  hand,  the  building  can  be  constructed  for  ap- 
proximately $100  per  unit  length  of  10'.  This 
includes  the  labor  as  well  as  the  material  on  the 
tar  and  gravel  roof,  which  is  the  flat  roof  on  the 
part  of  the  building  south  of  the  alley,  a  2' 
brick  wall  underneath  the  structure  and  the  iron 
posts,  gates,  panels  and  fenders  which  cost  at 
the  rate  of  $13.60  per  pen. 

The  total  cost  of  $2,110.55  does  not  take  ac- 
count of  grading,  hauling  cinders,  nor  of  the 
fence  posts. 

A  hoghouse  should  be  located  so  that  it  will 
give  access  to  pasture.  Fig.  274  shows  an  ar- 
rangement by  which  this  can  be  accomplished. 
B  represents  the  hoghouse,  A  the  small  pens  on 
the  outside  adjacent  to  the  pens  on  the  inside, 
and  V  and  Z  the  boar  pens  mentioned.  L  rep- 
resents a  small  pasture  that  may  be  used  for  a 
boar  or  any  other  hog  or  pigs.  D  is  the  lane  by 
which  the  hoghouse  is  approached.  E  and  F 
are  lanes  leading  from  each  side  of  the  hog- 
house to  the  pastures.  H  represents  the  pastures 
for  the  hogs  that  have  access  to  the  north  side 
of  the  building  and  J  the  pastures  for  those  on 
the  south  side.  This  arrangement  is  not  abso- 
lute, but  may  be  made  to  suit  the  location  or  the 
fancy  of  the  builder. 

The  hoghouse  is  planned  to  supply  the  needs 
of  the  man  who  grows  pigs  for  the  general  mar- 
ket as  well  as  of  the  man  who  produces  high- 
class  breeding  stock.  It  will  permit  of  pro- 
ducing two  litters  a  year  from  the  same  sows. 
This,  it  is  very  often  said,  cannot  be  done  suc- 
cessfully. But  the  cow,  the  mare,  and  many 
other  animals  will  support  one  young  at  the 
udder  and  at  the  same  time  another  within  the 
uterus.  The  sow  can  produce  two  litters  a  year 
and  never  be  supporting  more  than  one  at  the 
same  time.  Then  why  not  have  her  do  this  and 
return  more  proflt  to  her  owner  and  at  the  same 
time  keep  good  mature  sows  in  the  herd  rather 
than  sell  them  to  avoid  keeping  them  all  the 
year  for  a  single  litter,  which  necessitates  breed- 
ing from  young,  immature  and  untried  gilts? 

The  sows  are  bred  to  farrow  in  February.  In 
order    to    insure    exercise    during    the    winter 


156 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


months,  they  are  allowed  to  run  on  a  pasture  or 
in  a  barnyard  during  the  day  and  to  come  to  the 
hoghouse  at  night  where  they  sleep  and  are  fed 
both  night  and  morning.  Each  sow  is  trained 
to  come  to  her  own  j^en,  which  can  be  done  with 
very  little  trouble.  About  a  week  before  far- 
rowing time,  each  sow  is  confined  to  her  pen, 
having  access  of  course  to  the  small  .yard  on  the 
outside.  She  is  kept  there  till  the  pigs  are  from 
one  to  two  weeks  old  and  by  this  time  they  have 
learned  to  know  their  own  dam  so  that  all  can 
go  out  together.  The  sows  and  their  litters  are 
then  fed  in  their  respective  pens  each  morning 
and  evening  until  weaning  time.  At  this  time 
the  sows  are  taken  away  and  bred  for  the  second 
litter,  which  is  to  be  farrowed  in  August.  After 
weaning,  the  pigs  are  fed,  each  litter  in  its  re- 
spective pen,  in  the  hoghouse,  they  also  having 
access  to  pasture  during  the  day.  This  is  the 
growing  period  for  the  pigs  and  in  order  to  get 
the  best  results  it  is  necessary  to  feed  them  under 
such  conditions  that  their  feed  can  be  con- 
trolled. When  it  is  time  for  the  sows  to  farrow 
again  they  are  returned  to  the  hoghouse  and 
pigs  taken  out  to  a  separate  lot  and  finished  for 
market.  At  this  time  the  pigs  may  be  put  on 
full  feed  and  be  fed  in  larger  droves. 

This  process  is  repeated  twice  each  year,  but 
in  winter  when  the  weather  is  cold  a  few  pens 
at  one  end  of  the  hoghouse,  or  a  separate  shed 
on  the  outside,  must  be  reserved  for  the  brood 
sows  and  later  for  the  fattening  hogs. 

A  hoghouse  built  and  operated  according  to 
the  plan  outlined  makes  it  possible  to  perform 
a  maximum  amount  of  work  with  a  minimum 
amount  of  labor  and  to  put  the  pigs  on  the  mar- 
ket at  seasons  of  the  year  that  are  out  of  the 
ordinary,  and  it  can  be  expected  that  pigs  thus 
marketed  will  sell  for  higher  prices  than  those 
that  are  marketed  along  with  the  general  sup- 
ply- 

HOGHOUSE  AND  FEEDING  FLOOR. 

A  plan  for  a  hoghouse  for  100  hogs  and  a 
feeding  floor  for  hogs  is  shown  in  Fig.  275,  276 
and  277  to  which  the  subjoined  description  ap- 
plies : 

Concrete  makes  the  best  and  cheapest  feeding 
floor.  It  is  rather  cold  for  sleeping  room,  and 
is  not  as  dry  as  a  board  floor.  Dryness  and 
warmth  are  necessary  for  young  pigs. 

Ten  pens  8'  x  8'  will  accommodate  100  fat- 
tening hogs.  In  front  of  these  pens  make  a 
concrete  floor  12'  x  80'.  For  foundation  and 
nail  ties  of  the  house  set  on  edge  five  2"  x  6"  x 
16'  joists  on  north  side,  one  2"  x  6"  x  8'  on  east, 
one  2"  X  6"  x  8'  on  west  and  five  2"  x  6"  x  16'  on 
south  side  and  spike  together  at  corners.     Make 


the  foundation  8'  wide  outside  measurement. 
Cut  eight  2"  x  4"s  7'  8"  long  and  place  with 
tops  flush  with  the  outer  joists  for  partition  ties 
and  spike  to  keep  in  place.  Then  drive  enough 
strong  stakes  to  keep  all  in  line.  Fill  in  with 
3"    of    concrete    made    of    6    parts    of    crushed 


FIG.    275.       HOGHOUSE    AND    FEEDING    FLOOR     (SECTION). 

80' 


m 

N> 

60' 

FIG.    276.       HOGHOUSE    AND    FEEDING    FLOOR     (PLAN). 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


157 


FIG.     277.      HOGHOUSE    AXD    FEEDING    FLOOR. 


stone  or  gravel  or  screened  cinders  to  1  part  or 
good  Portland  cement.  Tamp  evenly  until  tht 
water  begins  to  show  on  the  surface.  After  this 
sets  finish  with  a  coat  of  cement,  1  of  cement  to 
3  of  coarse  clean  sand.  Use  a  straight  edge  9' 
or  10'  long  to  finish  up  level  with  the  2"  x  6" 
and  2"  x  4"  ties.  TroAvel  down  to  a  good  finish 
and  be  careful  that  there  are  no  depressions  to 
invite  water  and  ice. 

This  done,  lay  off  the  feeding  floor  12'  x  80' 
by  setting  on  edge  a  2"  x  8"  x  12'  joist  at  each 
end  and  five  2"  x  8"  x  16'  parallel  with  front  of 
house  12'  away.  Secure  the  corners  and  joints 
and  stake  well  and  fill  in  Avith  concrete  as  in  the 
foundation  for  tlie  pens.  Finish  flush  with  the 
tops  of  the  outside  joists.  A  better  job  will  be 
had  if  a  concrete  curb  is  made  instead  of  using 
the  wood  outside  curb,  but  it  will  cost  more.  As 
the  concrete  is  finished  it  must  be  cut  through 
in  sf|uares  not  over  5',  better  4'  or  3'  to  insure 
against  cracks  that  are  sure  to  follow  expansion 
and  contraction  with  changing  temperatures. 
After  the  cement  has  Avell  set  fill  all  the  cuts 
made  with  hot  pitch  or  coal  tar  roof  paint ;  this 
keeps  out  water,  yields  to  expansion  and  adds  to 
the  life  of  tlie  floor.  This  should  be  hot  and 
poured  in  from  a  vessel  with  a  lip  or  spout  to 
secure  a  small  stream. 

The  erection  of  the  pens  on  the  foundation  is 
easv.     AVe  need  20  2"  x  4"  x  16'  and  11  2"  x 


4"  X  8'  for  nail  ties  and  roof  support,  and  1,800 
feet  of  16'  lumber,  free  from  knotholes.  To 
this  add  shingles  or  metal  for  roof.  Make  the 
rear  of  the  house  3'  6"  and  front  6'.  The  top 
rear  nail  tie  acts  as  nail  tie  and  roof  support. 
The  front  has  two  nail  ties,  one  3'  6"  above 
floor  and  the  other  6'  above  the  floor;  this  also 
is  a  roof  support  or  plate.  Another  2"  x  4" 
must  be  the  center  support  of  the  roof.  The 
sheeting  must  run  up  and  down  and  is  ready 
for  shingle  or  metal,  but  it  will  pay  to  cover 
with  tarred  paper  before  laying  shingles  or 
metal,  as  it  will  be  warmer  and  keep  out  snow. 
It  will  pay  to  make  the  siding  double  and  use 
tarred  paper  between,  as  this  actually  keeps  out 
snow  and  wind,  which  are  disastrous  at  farrow- 
ing time.  The  doors  in  front  should  be  2'  x  3' 
and  hung  on  hook  hinges.  A  drop  window  18" 
x  5'  6"  will  give  air  and  sunlight,  opening 
south.  After  cutting  the  cement  floor  into 
blocks  pass  a  tool  along  the  cut  and  round  the 
edges.  Round  the  edges  of  the  floor,  too,  as 
this  will  prevent  crumbling  that  is  sure  to  follow 
with  edges  sharp  and  rough. 

LOVEJOY  FARROWING  HOUSE. 

The  farrowing  pens  designed  by  A.  J.  Love- 
joy  of  Winnebago  Co.,  111.,  are  each  situated  in 
the  middle  of  an  acre  lot  and  on  either  side  of 


158 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


a  driveway,  the  divisions  being  made  by  the  use 
of  wire  fencing.  The  houses  are  8'  square.  Four 
16'  boards  make  the  floor,  and  the  roof  and 
sides  are  made  of  matched  flooring,  lined  with 
rjuilding  paper,  and  that  covered  on  the  inside 
with  common  lumber.  The  houses  are  set  to 
front  south.  There  is  a  door  in  both  north  and 
south  ends  and  a  window  in  the  south  end,  the 
latter  being  hinged  at  the  top  with  rope  and 
pulley  attached  so  that  it  can  be  swung  up  out  of 


the  way  when  it  is  open.  In  cold  weather  and 
early  spring  the  north  door  is  closed,  and  if 
necessary  the  south  openings  also  are  closed, 
fresh  air  being  secured  through  the  ventilator  in 
the  roof  that  is  made  by  carrying  the  ridge  a 
trifle  higher  than  the  sides  that  comprise  the 
roof.  This  is  shown  clearly  in  Figs.  278  and  279. 
In  hot  weather  the  houses  are  converted  into 
summer  resorts  by  leaving  both  doors  and  win- 


FIG.    278i.       LOVEJOT   FARROWINQ    HOUSE    (CONSTRUCTION). 


FIG.     279.       LOVEJOT    FARROWING    HOUSE. 


FIG.    280.      HOUSE    FOR    PIGS     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


159 


FIG.     281.      HOUSE    FOR    PIGS     (FRONT    ELEVATION). 


dow  open.  Each  house  is  nicely  painted  with 
two  coats  and  trimmed  in  white  and  costs  com- 
plete about  $10.  They  are  set  up  on  blocks  in 
the  summer  to  keep  the  floors  dry  and  in  the 
Avinter  time  they  are  dropped  to  the  ground  and 
banked  to  keep  the  wind  out  from  under  the 
floor. 

HOUSE  FOR  PIGS. 

The  building  shown  in  Figs.  280  and  281  is 
for  pigs.  To  build  a  hoghouse  simply  for  win- 
tering pigs  is  not  a  wise  thing  to  do.  The  hogs 
should  be  made  to  grow  and  fatten.  A  hog- 
house to  be  good  must  necessarily  be  somewhat 
expensive,  but  it  can  be  built  so  as  to  be  used 
both  for  farrowing  and  feeding  purposes,  con- 
sequently may  be  used  the  entire  year,  and  this 
would  counterbalance  the  initial  cost. 


A  hoghouse  should  be  sanitary,  serviceable, 
and  accessible  to  pasture.  To  be  sanitary  it 
should  admit  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  to 
all  of  the  pens,  exclude  cold  drafts  in  winter, 
be  well  ventilated  and  exclude  the  hot  sun  in 
summer.  To  be  serviceable  it  should  be  so  built 
that  it  may  be  used  at  all  times  and  for  all  pur- 
poses. It  should  also  be  built  with  the  idea  of 
economizing  labor  in  the  care  and  handling  of 
the  swine.  To  be  accessible  to  pasture  it  must 
be  built  so  that  the  pigs  have  a  free  passage  be- 
tween pasture  and  hoghouse. 

THE  MORGAN  HOG  BARN. 

F.  W.  Morgan's  hog  barn  on  his  Rock  County 
farm  in  Wisconsin  is  a  T-shaped  balloon-frame 
building,  ceiled  on  the  inside  and  outside,  and 
having  a  shingle  roof.     {Qee  Fig.  282.)    It  is  280' 


MORGAN    HOG    BARN     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


160 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


wide  and  extends  back  130'.  There  are  in  all  52 
pens,  each  with  a  small  rustling  box  for  winter 
use  and  an  outdoor  addition  extending  back  24'. 
There  is  a  9'  shed  roof  extending  from  the  barn 
proper  over  this.     Each  outdoor  pen  has  a  ce- 


extreme  heat  and  the  flooring  of  the  house  gets 
thoroughly  dried. 

The  flooring  of  the  building  is  made  of  1" 
lumber  and  doubled  and  the  stuff  used  should 
be  clear  of  knots  so  there  will  be  no  leaks  to  let 


t—-ZU-- 


STORE 
ROOM      ■ 


OUT  siDi;  pi:ns 


rrTTT 

INDC 


T 


PEIJ^    B'X  9' 


n_ 


.__2iV' 1^- 


lOO' 


ROOM 


ENGINE 
BOOM 


SMALL  RUSTLING  BOXES 
FOR    WINTER   USE 

CEMENT 
WALLDWIN&   BOXES 
ONE   TO  EACH   PEN        / 


f 


Da 


V 


0 


p 


SHED  ROOF 
COMES  TO  MERE 


PASSAGE 


STORE 
-      ROOM 


-  30' ^J*- 


lOO' 


FIG.     283.      MORGAN    HOG    BARN     (FLOOR    ARRANGJ3MENT) . 


ment  wallowing  trough,  so  that  eacli  hog  gets 
two  rooms  and  a  bath.  At  each  end  of  the  barn 
are  rooms  24'  square  and  20'  high,  which  are 
kept  at  an  even  temperature  during  the  winter, 
and  are  very  useful  in  case  of  young  pigs.  The 
entire  floor  is  of  cement.  The  large  room  in  the 
center  is  30'  square  and  24'  high.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  truss  work  inside  so  as  to  be  entirely 
open.  It  is  used  as  an  engine  and  mixing  room. 
Fig.  283  shows  the  details  of  interior  arrange- 
ment. 

A  NEBRASKA  HOGHOUSE. 

The  hoghouse  erected  by  S.  McKelvie  «&  Son 
of  Clay  Co.,  Neb.,  faces  south  and  is  24'  x  36'. 
It  stands  on  level  ground  and  is  built  on  a  brick 
wall  2'  6"  high  and  the  space  underneath  the 
building  is  utilized  for  shade  in  the  summer  and 
makes  a  warm  sleeping  room  for  cold  weather. 
There  are  two  doors  in  the  south  wall,  also  two 
directly  opposite  in  the  north  wall.  The  north 
doors  are  closed  in  the  winter  and  the  late  sum- 
mer and  fall  pigs  that  are  weaned  run  in  there 
to  sleep,  having  the  space  divided  so  that  the  fall 
pigs  take  one-half  and  the  summer  ones  the 
other  half.  By  opening  all  the  doors  in  the  sum- 
mer the  pigs  are  enabled  to  get  in  out  of  the 


water  through.  The  sides  of  the  building  are 
also  double.  The  first  is  common  sheeting  and 
on  this  was  put  building  paper  and  then  the  best 
6"  drop  siding.  This  makes  a  wall  that  wind 
does  not  blow  through.  Tar  paper  also  was  used 
under  the  shingles.  This  makes  a  warm  roof 
and  keeps  the  wind  and  fine  snow  from  driving 
through.  Besides  it  gives  a  warm  building  wliich 
is  ventilated  by  raising  one  or  more  of  the  upper 
windows  shown  in  Fig.  284.  The  north  roof  is 
17'  long  and  the  south  roof  is  12'  long.  The 
offset  in  the  roof  where  the  windows  are  set  in 
to  give  light  for  the  north  pens  is  3'  8".  This 
is  the  space  between  the  roofs.  A  large  window 
can  be  used  here  if  so  desired. 

The  interior  is  divided  as  follows:  A  4'  aisle 
runs  through  the  long  way  east  and  west,  leav- 
ing 10'  on  each  side  to  divide  up  into  .pens.  This 
divides  it  into  five  pens  on  each  side,  two  of  each 
five  being  6'  x  10'  and  three  8'  x  10'  with  a  door 
to  each  pen.  One  pen  is  used  for  stove  and  bunk. 
By  the  construction  of  the  front  and  roof  as 
shown  sunshine  is  admitted  in  the  pens  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  day,  particularly  during 
the  middle  of  the  day,  when  it  is  most  beneficial. 
The  pens  are  made  of  movable  partitions,  so 
that  if  desired  one  or  all  of  them  can  be  raised 
and  the  entire  floor  used  for  feeding.     It  makes 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


161 


a  very  good  place  to  fatten  hogs  during  the  win- 
ter in  case  it  happens  that  it  is  not  wanted  as  a 
breeding  house,  as  less  feed  is  needed  to  keep  up 
the  animal  heat.  The  chimney  or  flue  is  at  one 
end  and  2'  north  of  the  aisle.    The  stove  is  at  the 


pigs  are  farrowed  and  a  few  days  old  and  the 
weather  will  admit  they  are  hustled  out  on  the 
ground  into  lots  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  acre, 
which  are  provided  with  small  houses  7x7'  made 
of  shiplap  5'  on  south  end  and  2'  4"  on  north, 


I)=Door 


6cale 


FIG.    2S4.       A    NEBRASKA    HOGHOUSE    (ELEVATION). 


other  end  and  the  pipe  runs  the  length  of  the 
building  and  heats  it  with  very  little  fuel. 
AVhere  the  cost  of  fuel  is  not  much  of  an  object 
heating  could  be  done  with  steam.  Where  a 
steam  cooker  is  used  the  building  can  be  heated 
conveniently  and  very  evenly.  The  hogs  get 
into  the  house  by  approaches  (not  shown  in  the 
illustration)  made  to  lead  to  each  door  and  are 
8'  long,  one  end  resting  on  the  ground  and  the 
other  end  just  below  the  door.  This  makes  a 
gradual  slope  and  the  hogs  walk  up  easily  on 
the  slats  which  prevent  their  slipping. 

This  is  an  all-purpose  hoghouse  and  a  farrow- 
ing place  in  particular,  where  no  matter  what 
the  weather  the  litters  can  be  saved.    After  the 


with  a  drop  door  in  the  south  side  to  let  in  the 
sunshine.  Here  they  are  kept  for  a  time,  one 
sow  and  litter  to  a  lot.  Here  they  have  the 
ground  to  run  on,  which,  like  daylight  and  sun- 
shine, is  essential.  These  small  houses  and  yards 
are  all  that  are  required  for  pigs  during  mild 
weather,  but  for  early  or  late  fall  pigs  it  would 
no  doubt  pay  to  build  such  a  house  as  described. 
The  cost  of  this  building  was  about  $250.  It 
was  built  about  10  years  ago. 

AN  EXPERIMENT  STATION  HOG  BARN. 

The  swine  barn  erected  at  the  Nebraska  Ex- 
periment Station  is  intended  mainly  for  winter 


NOR  TH      £L  E:i//t  r/OH 

FIG.     285.      AN    EXPERIMENT     STATION    HOG    BARN. 


162 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    286.     AN    EXPERIMENT    STATION    HOG    BARN. 


■  -■4'-i--it.----S 


•9"...h\S'9'.....^..4'3'-^ 


'tin 


< -■•4'->-i 


■^Ml 


I  ZZII 


.r 


""^ 


^' g-'.-^cr^.^n^'^. 


^" 


4 


FJf^ST   no  OR     Fl/)r/ 

FIG.    287       AN    EXPERIMENT    STATION    HOG    BARN. 


use  and  for  early  farrowing.  Although  it  has  remains  true  that  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year 
been  demonstrated  that  the  small  house  is  most  the  swine  barn  which  can  be  kept  warm  and 
practical  for  a  large  part  of  the  year,  it  still    dry  by  artificial  heat  if  need  be  and  can  have 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


163 


< /^.V. 


8'r-- 


D 


c/ioss  srcr/o/v 

FIG.    288.     AN  EXPERIMENT   STATION    HOG  BARN. 


■  2a- a- 


<<>  f 


&X- 


/6'0'- 


OolS/c/e  Mails 


Co7?c^(?^e  P/ers 


._-  d'-o" 


7-S- Hf-j?-^'-  -B 


-fg'4". 


■  8-0"— -> 


.^V- 


D 


□ 


>6- 


7'-8-  --->'-- -i--  -7.>-'--i- 


■7-r 


.7/4'  ;, 7:4'- 


m 


^ 


a 


{13 


■  S2-0''- 


IrOUI^DATlOH    PLAhJ 
FIG.    289.     AN   EXPERIMENT    STATION    HOG    BARN, 
abundant  sunlight,  is  necessary  to  every  good     fer  from  cold  storms  and  even  from  zero  weather 
breeder.      In   Nebraska,    at   least,    the   pigs   of     at    farrowing    time.      The    weather    is    equally 


164 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


,8*10- J2(t. 


m 


m 


v 

k 

t 

\ 

s 

^^                                   .^ 

f 

■ 

FIG.    290.     AN   EXPFRIMENT    STATION    HOG   BARN     (SOUTH    ELEVATION). 


mud  which  makes  it  necessary  to  have  floors 
for  a  short  period. 

The  house  in  question  is  52'  long  iand  26'  wide 
in  the  main  part,  the  projection  for  hay  and 
grain  storage  making  it  34'  wide  over  all.  It 
provides  11  good  pens  for  brood  sows,  with  am- 
ple light  in  all  these  pens.  It  has  cement  floors, 
with  a  sewer,  and  a  trap  in  every  pen  near  the 
feeding  trough  and  a  stove  which  can  be  used 
when  necessary  to  keep  the  house  warm.  In 
each  pen  is  a  guard  made  of  gas  pipe  to  prevent 
the  sows  crowding  the  pigs  to  the  wall.  The 
cement  floors  will  be  covered  with  a  light  board 
floor  when  the  house  is  in  regular  use,  but  at 
other  times  these  floors  will  be  taken  up  and  at 
all  times  can  be  removed  to  clean  and  disinfect 
the  house.  It  is  probable  this  house  will  not  be 
used  largely  in  summer  time,  as  the  practice  at 
the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  is  to  keep  all 
liogs  in  small  fields  of  a  half-acre  or  one  acre 
each,  allowing  not  more  than  two  or  three  litters 
to  rvin  together,  and  preferably  only  one  litter 
in  each  field. 

This  house  is  covered  with  drop  siding  on  the 


outside  and  is  sheeted  with  flooring  on  the  in- 
side. The  windows  are  so  arranged  that  the 
sunshine  will  fall  upon  the  floors  within  the 
pens  during  the  months  of  February,  INIarch 
and  April. 

The  objection  which  might  possibly  be  urged 
against  this  house  by  the  farmer  is  the  cost, 
which  may  be  higher  than  is  necessary  or  pos- 
sibly than  is  warranted,  in  the  construction  of 
a  house  which  accommodates  only  11  pens, 
but  Avhich  gives  ample  storage  capacity  for 
grain,  with  storage  for  baled  straw  above,  and 
can  easily  be  made  comfortal)le  for  an  attend- 
ant to  stay  in  the  barn  at  night.  The  cost  of 
this  barn  is  about  $2,200.  We  present  the  archi- 
tect's complete  plans.     {Figs.  285  to  290.) 

AN  ILLINOIS  HOGHOUSE. 

The  peculiar  feature  of  the  windows  at  the 
apex  of  the  roof  serves  to  admit,  in  the  early 
spring,  the  warm  rays  of  the  sun  on  the  north 
row  of  pens,  the  south  row  being  lighted  by  the 
lower  tier  of  windows,  thus  affording  a  sun  bath 


F 


■    I   ^^ 


I     I     I    i    I    I  I  ^ 


£: 


II    III 


I I      It"      r 


I      I 


I     11.11 


I    I      1 


I    I    I 


I ! I 

1  _  I     . 


S  0-  ciwV-  a- 


I      I     I     1      M      I      I     I      '     I       IQ 


Ft' 


FIG.    291.      AN    ILLINOIS    HOGHOUSE     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


SWINE  BARN 8  AND  HOUSES. 


165 


to  all  the  occupants,  the  value  of  which  in  swine 
raising  is  well  known.  (See  Figs.  291,  292  and 
293.) 

The  foundation  is  made  of  blocks  of  stone 
which  are  laid  about  4'  apart.  Sill  beams  are 
of  6"  X  6"  lumber.  The  frame  consists  of  2"  x  6" 
scantlings  placed  2'  apart  and  which  are  7'  high. 
There  are   two   rows   of  4"  x  4"   posts — one   on 


FIG.     292.       AN     ILLINOIS     HOGHOUSE     (FnAMEWORIv). 


lower  ones  up  and  down.  All  the  partitions  are 
movable  drop  partitions  except  those  adjoitfing 
south  of  the  alley  and  the  middle  cross  parti- 
tion. The  total  cost  of  this  building  was  about 
$200. 

HOUSE  FOR  20  SOWS. 

The  house  illustrated  in  Fig.  294  is  practi- 
cally rat-proof.  The  plan  shows  a  row  of  feed- 
ing pens  around  the  building  with  a  concrete 
floor.  This  floor  is  on  the  level  of  the  board 
floor  in  the  breeding  or  sleeping  stall  and  the 
concrete  in  the  alleyway  through  the  center  of 
the  house.  The  concrete  feeding  floor  and  alley- 
way are  to  be  built  first  and  with  a  fall  of  2" 
in  the  length  of  the  building  to  give  drainage 
so  that  the  alleyway  may  be  flushed  out  often. 
In  extremely  cold  or  stormy  weather  it  may  be 
desirable  to  feed  and  slop  the  sows  in  the  sleep- 
ing pens. 

In  building  fill  the  spaces  under  the  floor  with 


S^cAcc  Li    I    I    I    I    I    I    I     I    I      10  "Ft. 

FIG.     293.       AN     ILLINOIS     HOGHOUSE      (ARRANGEMENT     OF     FLOOR). 


each  side  of  the  alley,  6'  apart,  extending  to  and 
supporting  the  roof,  as  shown  in  Fig.  292. 
Girts  of  2"  X  6"  go  across  every  6'.  Plate  beams 
consist  of  a  2"  x  6"  and  2"  x  4"  spiked  together. 
Rafters  are  2"  x  4"  and  2'  6"  apart.  The  roof 
is  one-third  pitch  (see  Fig.  291)  and  is  made 
of  sheeting  and  shingles.  Sides  are  of  drop 
matched  6"  siding.  Eaves  and  gables  project 
18".  Floor  joists  are  2"  x  8"  and  2'  apart. 
Floor  of  2"  plank.  Windows  are  2'  by  2'  3". 
Those  above  are  made  to  slide  sideways  and  the 


cinders  or  coarse  sand  or  fine  gravel  and  in  this 
lay  the  nail  ties  for  the  floor,  so  that  the  cinders 
or  sand  will  fill  the  space  completely  up  to  the 
floor.  This  makes  the  floor  solid,  warm,  dry  and 
efl'ectually  shuts  out  rats,  as  they  cannot  burrow 
in  cinders.  The  cinders  should  be  at  least  6" 
deep ;  deeper  is  better.  The  durability  of  the 
concrete  floors  depends  on  the  construction.  A 
poorly  built  concrete  floor  is  short-lived ;  a  well 
built  one  is  practically  as  lasting  as  granite.  The 
concrete  and  board  floors  can  all  be  made  be- 


166 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


fore  the  building  is  erected,  but  one  "^ill  have  a 
firmer  building  and  fences  to  erect  the  frame  of 
the  building  and  set  posts  for  the  outside  fence 
before  laying  concrete. 

The  plan  of  construction  {Fig.  294)  gives 
sizes  and  lengths  of  material,  so  that  any  handy 
farmer  can  do  the  carpenter  work.  The  siding  is 
what  is  called  patent  siding,  tongued  and 
grooved.  It  should  be  well  dried  before  it  is  put 
on.  It  is  covered  with  redwood  shingles.  The 
sash  have  six  lights,  each  8"  x  10" ;  they  can  be 
in  pairs,  as  indicated.  To  get  a  better  distribu- 
tion of  sunlight  they  should  be  distributed  so  as 
to  divide  the  dead  space  equally  between  windows. 
The  deck  sides  are  not  perpendicular,  but  have 
an  8"  slope  in  the  2i/^'  of  height,  thus  admit- 
ting more  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  By  this  ar- 
rangement of  sash  one  can  have  sunlight  in 
every  corner  of  the  house  and  by  hingilig  half  of 
the  sash  and  elevating  or  lowering  it  as  in  a 
greenhouse  one  can  have  almost  complete  ven- 
tilation. 

By  doors  opening  into  the  alley  one  can 
change  or  sort  the  sows  or  pigs  readily,   and 


from  the  end  or  sided  doors  sows  can  pass  to  as 
many  different  grass  lots  or  fields  as  are  avail- 
able. If  one  wants  fire  in  the  house  for  heating 
it  or  making  slop  he  can  arrange  that  in  the 
alley  and  have  a  flue  put  in  the  deck  when  build- 
ing. More  space  for  stove  or  boiler  may  be  had 
in  the  center  of  the  house  by  setting  the  partition 
of  a  stall  on  each  side  back  one  foot,  thus  making 
two  small  stalls  6'x7'  and  stove  space  8'x8'.  In 
building,  every  other  partition  of  stalls  may  be 
made  movable  but  this  is  a  matter  for  each  man 
to  settle  for  himself.  A  cistern  or  drive-well 
will  add  to  the  convenience  and  place  water  at 
hand. 

The  cost  of  the  building  not  painted  will  be 
about  $200.  This  plan  places  the  health  of  the 
herd  above  the  convenience  of  the  herdsman. 
Sanitary  conditions  are  the  first  requisite  of 
health,  and  these  mean  plenty  of  sunlight,  pure 
air  and  clean  dry  sleeping  places.  The  cement 
floor  outside  favors  a  clean  house  inside,  reduces 
inroads  of  filth  and  rats  and  adds  to  the  comfort 
of  the  sows  and  pigs. 


PIG,    294.      HOUSE    FOR    20    sows     (SIDE    AND    END    ELEVATIONS    AND    FI-OOR   PLAN). 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


167 


HOGHOUSE  FOR  SOWS  AND  PIGS. 

The  hoghouse  shown  in  Figs.  295  and  296  is 
intended  for  sows  to  farrow  in.  Pigs  when 
weaned  may  also  be  fed  in  it.  This  house  is 
68'x30';  stalls  are  6'  wide  and  10'  deep,  a  row 
on  each  side ;  this  leaves  10'  in  the  center  for  a 
feeding  floor  to  feed  young  pigs  on  and  two  bins 


on  each  side  at  the  north  end  for  feed  8'xlO' 
and  a  mixing  room  8'xlO'  for  cooker.  Water 
is  to  be  piped  to  mixing  room,  concrete  is  to 
extend  from  A  to  B.  The  object  of  the  concrete 
not  extending  all  over  the  whole  floor  is  to  have 
5'  of  dirt  at  the  back  end  of  each  stall  for  pigs 
and  sows  to  lie  on. 


w 


w 


w 


68  FT. 
w  w 


w 


w 


w 


w 


-l-rCDf--2 — h— 3~-|--4--|--5 6— 4— 7--4— 8-- 

CONCRE 


DOOR 


=J^ 


CONCRETE 

\d  \o  \o  \o 


CONCRETE 


— 14 15— 


DIRT 


-16— 


—17 18- 


w 


v 


w 


—0—4—10— 

'"A 
_N 


— Id— 


w 


w 


w  w 

68  FT. 

FIG.    295.     HOGHOUSE  FOB  SOWS  AND  PIGS    (GROUND  PLAN). 


-20-- 


FEED    S 


MIXING   oV 
BOOM     5 \ 


FEED   5 

BIN     ^- 


w 


DOOR 


W 


8FT 


68FT. 

FIG.    296.      HOGHOUSE   FOR    SOWS    AND    PIGS     (ELEVATION). 


ii4- 


FIG.    297.       FARROWING   PEN    FOR    EARLY    LITTERS. 


FARROWING  PEN  FOR  EARLY  LITTERS. 

For  warmth,  sunlight  and  convenience  the 
farrowing  pen  shown  in  Fig.  298  is  unexcelled. 
Its  foundation  is  on  stone  pillars.  The  joists  are 
2"x6"  by  20'  long;  the  floor  is  tight.  The  south 
side  is  6I/2'  to  the  eave ;  north  side  4'  8"  to 
eave;  highest  point  of  house,  12';  4"x4"  corner 
posts  and  also  to  roof  in  center.  The  sides  are 
all  boxed  tightly,  papered  and  weather-boarded. 
The  roof  is  sheeted  down  solid,  papered  and 
shingled  with  best  shingles.  Sash  are  214'x 
61^'  each.  The  partitions  and  doors  are  made 
of  matched  flooring  and  are  33"  high  and  mov- 
able. The  dotted  lines  around  each  farrowing 
pen  {Fig.  297)  are  a  2"x4"  hardwood  scantling 
with  bottom  8"  from  floor  and  with  inside  8" 
from  partition.    According  to  some  swine  breed- 


168 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ers  it  is  an  advantage  to  use  matched  flooring 
for  partitions,  as  it  prevents  one  sow  from  know- 
ing what  her  next  neighbor  is  doing,  and  one 
disturbs  the  other  but  little.  A  pen  8'xl6'  for 
each  farrowing  pen  is  on  the  outside  of  the  house, 
and  is  made  so  one  pig  cannot  get  in  his  neigh- 
bor's pen,  thus  allowing  the  sow  to  be  fed  outside 
of  tlie  house  and  exercise  for  sow  and  pigs  when 
the  weather  will  admit.  The  cost  of  this  house 
complete  Avas  about  $125. 

AN  IOWA  MOVABLE  HOGHOUSE. 

The  hoghouses  used  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  are  made  as  indicated  in  Fig.  299.  The 
dimensions  are  8'  S({uare,  with  2'  8"  corner  posts 
and  5'  rafters.  The  pen  is  supported  by  five 
2"  X  ■4"s  running  from  end  to  end  and  sawed 
slanting  at  the  front  end,  the  two  outside  pieces 
having  holes  for  attaching  a  rope,  thus  enabling 
the  house  to  be  drawn  by  a  team  and  placed  in 
different  locations  when  desired.  The  floor  is 
made  from  four  rough  boards  I"xl2"xl6'  cut 
in  the  center,  and  the  roof  is  made  of  grooved 
roof  boards  I"xl0"xl2',  cut  in  the  center.  The 
sides  and  ends  are  made  of  8"  drop  siding,  and 
the  pen  when  complete  is  given  two  coats  of 
paint.  All  dimension  pieces  are  of  2"x4".  The 
roof  window  is  2'x5'  and  covered  by  a  hinged 
section  of  the  roof  the  same  width,  which  may  be 
opened  or  closed  to  admit  or  exclude  sunshine. 
The  door  is  2'  6"  x  2'  8",  and  the  opposite  end 
contains  a  gable  window  2'  x  21"  for  light  and 
ventilation.  The  pen  complete,  including  win- 
dows and  painted  two  coats,  will  cost  about  $12. 
After  the  pigs  are  old  enough  for  the  sows  to  be 
turned  together  as  many  as  three  sows  and 
18  pigs  may  be  accommodated. 

They  may  also  be  used  for  fattening  hogs,  and 
for  this  purpose  they  possess  some  important 
advantages  over  larger  apartments  or  shed  room, 


chief  among  which  is  that  they  can  be  readily 
moved  and  placed  where  desired,  and  also  that 
pens  of  this  size  prevent  the  hogs  from  piling  up 
and  injuring  themselves  by  overcrowding.  An- 
other point  is  that  this  system  permits  the  hogs 
to  be  moved  readily  to  clean,  fresh  ({uarters  as 
often   as   may   be    desired.      This   is   the    most 


FIG.     299.        AN    IOWA     MOVABLE     HOGHOUSE. 

effective  way  of  disinfecting  after  a  scourge  of 
hog  cholera.  This  system  of  handling  hogs  may 
be  modified  as  experience  or  varying  conditions 
dictate. 

A  MARYLAND  HOGHOUSE. 

Neither  corn  nor  pork  can  be  successfully  pro- 
duced without  plenty  of  sunshine.  In  the  North 
this  sunshine  in  winter  will  have  to  be  l)rouglit 
into  the  pens  through  glass.  In  more  southern 
latitudes  under  normal  conditions  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  face  the  pen  to  the  south ;  allow  the 
sun's  rays  to  reach  to  the  back  of  tlie  pen  on  the 
beds  and  give  good  shelter  and  protect  from  the 
north  and  west  winds. 


FIG.    298.     FARROWING    PEN    FOR    EARLY    LITTERS     (ELEVATION). 


SWINE  BARXS  A^'D  HOUSES. 


169 


The  end  elevation  and  floor  plans,  designed  by 
the  ^laryland  Experiment  Station,  give  almost 
a  complete  idea  of  the  pen  at  that  station,  which 
has  met  with  every  general  favor.  A  few  of  the 
points  in  construction  are  given  as  follows : 

1.  It  is  faced  to  the  south  (Fig.  300)  so  as 
to  permit  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  shine  on  the 
beds  of  the  pigs  at  the  extreme  rear  end  of  the 
pen  in  the  winter  season,  and  also  to  give  shade 
in  that  portion  in  summer.  2.  The  lattice  con- 
struction between  the  pens  at  the  ends  and  rear 
admits  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  in  warm 
Aveather.  3.  The  location  of  the  manure  pit  (see 
Fig.  302)  in  the  center  and  below  the  level  of  the 
sleeping  and  feeding  floors  with  all  drainage  to- 
Avard  it  aids  materially  in  maintaining  a  proper 


FIG.    300.       MARYLAND    HOGHOUSE     (ELEVATION). 


/ 


Bed 


DHIVEWAY 
AND  MANURE 


FEED 
FLOOR 


PASSAGE 


FEE.D  BINS  I 


FIG.    301.       MARYLAND    HOGHOUSE     (FLOOR). 


sanitary  condition.  4.  The  ease  and  facilitj" 
with  which  the  manure  can  be  removed.  5.  The 
swinging  gates  close  the  pigs  into  their  beds 
while  the  manure  is  being  loaded.  6.  The 
swinging  fronts  to  the  pens  permit  the  food  to 
be  easily  placed  in  tlie  trough  and  evenly  dis- 
tributed so  that  the  pigs  have  an  equal  chance 
at  feeding  time.  7.  The  manure  pit  is  concreted, 
which  enables  the  saving  of  all  liquid  excrements, 
which  with  the  pig  amounts  to  51  per  cent  of 
the  total  manure  value.  8.  Ease  of  changing 
pigs  from  pen  to  pen.  9.  Feed  bins  are  placed 
in  front  of  each  pen,  which  facilitates  feeding 
and  enables  keeping  different  feeds  for  each  pen 
if  desired.  (See  Fig.  301.)  10.  The  general 
plan  can  be  used  and  the  dimensions  and  ma- 
terials modified  so  as  to  meet  the  demand  of 
circumstances. 

HOGHOUSE  AND  STORAGE  BARN. 

An  up-to-date  hoghouse  must  first  of  all  pro- 
vide for  abundance  of  sunlight  and  pure  air, 
for  without  these  the  health  of  the  herd  is  im- 
periled and  the  very  object  of  the  outlay  is  de- 
feated. The  object  of  a  stock  shelter  is  to  pro- 
tect the  animals  from  inclement  Aveather  and  to 
furnish  the  comfort  requisite  to  health  and 
thrift.  Its  second  use  is  to  reduce  the  labor  and 
expense  of  feeding  and  caring  for  the  animals. 
Here  is  a  case  Avhere  the  good  of  the  herd  is 
paramount  to  the  convenience  and  comfort  of  the 
herdsman. 

We  knoAv  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  roof  and 
foundation  do  as  much  for  the  building  as  pos- 
sible, as  these  are  the  expensive  features  of  a 


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FIG,    302.       MARYLAND    HOGHOUSE     (SECTION). 


FIG.     303.       HOGHOUSE    AND    STOR.VGE    BARN     (FLOOR). 

structure,  but  they  are  not  the  AA'hole  thing,  nor 
the  chief  thing  of  value.  As  the  soavs  and  pigs 
are  not  the  consumers  of  the  corn  fodder  and 
alfalfa  to  any  extent  it  would  be  economy  of 
labor  to  store  these  in  the  horse  and  cattle  barn. 
It  would  be  convenient  to  store  pigfeed  in  the 


170 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


hoghouse,  and  as  this  is  not  so  bulky  we  can  pro- 
vide room  for  that  in  the  nortli  end  of  the  build- 
ing and  not  interfere  with  sunshine  and  ventila- 
tion, so  necessary  for  the  sows  and  pigs. 

If  we  make  a  two-story  hoghouse  with  room 
enough  in  the  upper  story  sufficient  to  justify 
increased  cost  of  floor,  strong  enough  and  close 
enough  to  carry  and  preserve  the  fodder  un- 
tainted, we  shall  need  to  have  the  lower  story  as 
low  as  practicable.  Six  feet  may  do,  but  this 
makes  it  impossible  to  have  sunlight  and  ventila- 
tion requisite  to  best  health  of  herd.  To  allow 
storage  overhead  and  also  secure  sunlight  and 
ventilation  we  can  slope  the  floor  for  3'  back,  up 
3'  to  outer  wall.  This  will  cost  more,  but  allows 
plenty  of  sunlight  and  ventilation,  without  which 
it  is  a  waste  of  money  to  build  a  hoghouse. 

The  ground  plan  {Fig.  303)  given  provides 
six  pens  and  a  feed  room  in  the  northwest  cor- 
ner. Two  of  the  pens  are  6'x6'  with  a  movable 
partition ;  the  other  four  pens  are  6'xlO'  with  a 
movable  board  floor  6'  x  6'  for  bed,  leaving  a 
space  4'x6'  on  the  uncovered  concrete,  easy  to 
clean  and  on  which  waste  bedding  will  take  up 
the  moisture. 

As  soon  as  the  weather  will  permit  the  sows 
should  be  fed  outside  on  the  feeding  floor.  This 
will  be  for  the  health  of  the  sows  and  promotive 
of  neatness  and  dryness  in  the  house.  The  frame 
is  of  2"x4"xl2'  and  drop  siding.  The  joists  for 
the  upper  floor  are  2"x4"xl6',  being  supported 
by  four  1"  x  4"  stringers  attached  to  the  upright 
2"  x  4"s  in  making  the  aisle  and  pens.  If  the 
drop  siding  is  not  free  from  knots  and  thorough- 
ly dry  it  will  be  better  to  cover  first  with  shiplap 
up  6'  and  line  with  paper,  before  putting  on  the 
drop  siding.  With  a  concrete  floor  there  can  be 
no  wind  from  below  and  no  rat  harbor. 

Floor  and  joists  are  saved,  which  will  cost  as 
much  as  the  concrete,  but  a  concrete  floor  with- 
out a  movable  wooden  floor  in  the  sleeping  pen 
is  too  cold,  though  with  the  arrangement  sug- 
gested it  is  the  warmest,  driest  floor  made. 

AN  INDIANA  HOGHOUSE. 

Figs.  304  and  303  show  a  hoghouse  120'  long 
by  8'  wide  with  front  side  8'  high  and  rear  side 
on  the  outside  5'xl9'.  Each  room  has  a  door 
3I/2'  high.  It  has  24  rooms  5'x8';  also  24  pens 
that  lets  the  sow  out  into  the  outside  pen,  and 
each  outside  pen  has  a  gate  to  let  the  sow  out 
into  a  lane  10'  wide.  This  is  for  convenience  in 
getting  each  sow  into  her  pen. 

The  floor  inside  the  barn  is  of  cement,  as  is 
the  one  in  the  outside  pen,  and  the  whole  house 
is  double  weather-boarded  with  building  paper 
between.  There  are  12  windows  in  front  of  this 
barn;    each   window   lights   two    rooms    inside. 


There  are  four  lots  adjoining  the  barn  of  11/^ 
acres  each,  so  six  sows  with  their  pigs  can  be 
turned  out  in  each  lot  when  the  pigs  are  small. 
The  rooms  on  the  inside  are  all  partitioned  with 
a  gate  that  can  be  taken  out,  thus  throwing  the 


FIG.     304       INDIANA     HOGHOUSE      (SIDE     SECTION). 


00 


^- 


-120       LONG 


2H 


2^ 


INSIDE    PENS 
5'  X       8' 


OUTSIDE    PENS 
5X10 


FIG.     305.       INDIANA    HOGHOUSE     (FLOOR    PLAN). 

entire  barn  into  one  room  8'xl20'.  This  is  for 
feeding  hogs.  Or  the  barn  can  be  made  into  as 
many  pens  as  desired  to  accommodate  different- 
aged  hogs. 

CORSA'S  HOGHOUSE. 

W.  S.  Corsa  of  Illinois  thus  describes  the  hog- 
house shown  in  Figs.  306  to  311:  "There  are 
just  a  few  cardinal  principles  to  bear  in  mind  in 
building  a  permanent  hoghouse.  These  are 
largely  summed  up  in  remembering  that  such 
a  house  is  to  be  built  for  the  comfort  of  the  hogs 
rather  than  the  convenience  of  the  herdsman. 
Fortunately  these  two  considerations  are  not 
necessarily  opposed  to  each  other.  In  building 
a  permanent  hoghouse,  as  in  building  anything 
permanent,  consideration  should  be  given  to  lo- 
cation. It  M^ould  seem  to  be  better  to  place 
such  a  building  reasonably  near  the  individual 
lots  and  away  from  the  general  group  of  farm 
buildings.  For  many  reasons  this  may  not  al- 
ways be  feasible,  but  it  would  seem  to  be  good 
practice  to  keep  the  hogs  away  from  the  barns 
and  adjoining  buildings. 

"The  nightmare  of  the  permanent  hoghouse 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


171 


FIG.     306.       CORSA'S     HOGHOUSE      (FRONT     ELEVATION). 


is  disease,  so  that  the  sanitary  conditions  are 
always  the  deciding  ones,  as  sunshine,  the  cheap- 
est and  best  germicide,  in  every  pen  at  some 
hour  of  the  day;  plenty  of  ventilation  without 
draught  and  no  harboring  place  for  filth. 

"Our  house  is  located  with  reference  to  the 
individual  hog  lots  and  houses.  It  stands  on 
ground  with  a  decided  slope  to  the  south,  giving 
good,  natural  surface  drainage.    At  the  rear  an 


open  wood  of  natural  forest  trees  on  somewhat 
higher  ground  affords  material  protection  from 
the  north  and  northeast  storms  of  winter.  Hav- 
ing with  some  care  located  the  site,  we  started 
in  on  the  foundation  by  digging  a  trench  6" 
wide  and  deep  enough  to  go  below  the  frost  line. 
With  this  concrete  foundation  brought  to  the 
proper  level  we  filled  in  the  hollow  parallelo- 
gram with  gravel  and  rock,  tamped  it  well  and 


•  -0    Posts  ^X^" 

•  -  a?/  other  posts  VA6' 


Dcu6?e>  H^nctoJfS 


JA 


FIG.    307.      CORSA'S    HOGHOUSE     (FLOOR    PLAN). 


172 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


covered  the  entire  surface  with  concrete,  making 
the  floor  rat-proof  and  water-proof.  Iron  pins 
were  placed  in  the  concrete  wherever  there  were 
to  be  posts  in  the  building.  For  siding  we  used 
boards  that  had  seen  service  for  two  years  as 
stack  covers.     Where  it  is  intended  to  use  con- 


FIG.     308.       CORSA'S    HOGHOUSE     (END    SECTION). 


ATTey 


FIG.     309.        CORSA'S     HOGHOUSE     (INSIDE    OF    PEN). 


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FIG.     310.        CORSA'S     HOGHOUSE     (CONSTRUCTION). 

Crete  on  exterior,  old  lumber  not  only  may  be 
used,  but  has  the  advantage  of  having  the  shrink 
out  of  it.  The  finishing  boards  were  then  put 
on  and  then  the  chicken  wire,  1"  mesh,  was 
stretched.  Hang  your  strip  of  chicken  wire  as 
you  would  wall  paper.  Start  at  the  top,  make 
that  secure,  then  fasten  one  edge,  after  which 
stretch  sidewaj^s,  then  fasten  the  bottom.  Do 
not  use  strips  of  wood  or  laths  to  keep  the  wire 


out  from  the  side,  but  use  screws,  about  IV^' , 
bury  the  wire  in  the  heads  of  the  screws  and  give 
a  half  turn.  Wherever  the  wire  might  touch  the 
wood  place  a  screw.  Fence  staples  will  keep  the 
wire  from  leaving  the  screw  heads.  Use  screws 
and  staples  generously.  The  first  coat  of  con- 
crete, made  2  parts  sand  to  1  cement,  will  just 
cover  the  wire  netting.  Before  that  is  entirely 
dry  apply  finishing  coat  of  1  part  sand,  1  cement, 
and  float  even  with  the  finish  boards.  Concrete 
fills  in  cracks  between  siding  boards  and  effectu- 


£i^n  noom  for  J-,ittlG  fi^S 

FIG.     311.       CORSA'S    HOGHOUSE     (SUN    ROOM). 

ally  stops  all  draughts  and  sifting  in  of  snow  in 
times  of  driving  storm.  Concrete  was  used  on 
the  entire  exterior  except  on  south  front  above 
the  low  roof,  which  was  finished  in  shingles. 
The  appearance  would  have  been  improved  if  the 
shingles  had  been  laid  irregularly.  This  low 
roof  is  quite  flat,  and  is  consequently  covered 
with  prepared  roofing.  It  is  important  that  this 
roof  be  kept  almost  fiat,  so  as  to  bring  the  upper 
large  windows  as  low  down  as  possible  to  let  the 
sunlight  shine  directly  into  the  back  row  of 
pens.  Remember  to  make  ample  flashing  where 
this  low  roof  joins  the  shingle  front  above ;  other- 
wise any  southerly  storm  will  be  in  evidence  in 
your  hoghouse.  One  more  important  feature  of 
this  low  roof:  At  the  lower  edge  is  a  box  gut- 
ter tinned  in  6"  Avide.  At  the  west  end  it  is  1" 
deep  and  at  the  east  end  4".  Down  spouts 
should  be  boxed  in  and  run  into  tile.  All  this 
helps  to  keep  the  premises  dry.  Ordinary  gut- 
ters would  be  less  sightly,  less  durable  and  inter- 
fere with  the  sunlight  at  the  east  end  of  the 
lower  row  of  windows.  The  main  roof  is  cov- 
ered with  shingles. 

"All  posts  are  set  on  iron  pins  bedded  in  the 
concrete.  The  corner  posts  are  6'  and  the  2" 
plate  gives  ample  room  for  a  man  to  walk  around 


8WINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


173 


without  fear  of  bumping  his  head.  The  pens 
are  10'  4"  long  by  8'  wide,  and  have  a  satisfac- 
tory floor  of  inch  boards  made  in  two  halves  each 
10'x4'.  This  does  away  with  the  chill  from  the 
concrete  and  the  tendency  to  rheumatic  sows  and 
pigs.  The  pens  are  separated  by  removable  par- 
titions {Fig.  307)  which  slide  down  between 
cleats  on  the  posts.  The  partition  2'  10"  has  a 
2"  X  4"  guard  rail  on  both  sides.  At  customary 
times  we  take  up  wood  floors,  remove  the  parti- 
tions and  clean  house.  Fig.  30.9,  interior  view  of 
pen,  shows  guard  rail  supported  on  partition. 
This  leaves  the  floor  surface  entirely  unob- 
structed. This  is  important.  We  use  a  wood 
rail  instead  of  gas  pipe,  because  it  is  not  so  cold, 
and  finally  we  use  a  "rail"  instead  of  the  cus- 
tomary guard  board,  because  the  rail  lets  the 
sun  between  it  and  the  partition,  to  the  great 
comfort  and  health  of  the  little  pigs.  The  bot- 
tom edge  of  this  2"  x  4"  guard  rail  is  8"  above 
the  board  floor.  The  bottom  of  the  triangular 
guard  rail  support  is  9"  long,  so  that  when  the 
2"  X  4"  guard  is  nailed  on  there  is  a  protecting 
space  for  the  little  pigs  of  11".  The  guard  rail 
at  the  rear  of  the  pen  is  attached  by  its  supports 
permanently  to  the  2"  x  6"  nail  girts.  At  the 
front  of  the  pen  the  guard  rails  are  brought  on 
a  slant  from  the  support  and  attached  directly 
to  the  partition.  This  gives  a  little  additional 
room  in  front  for  feeding,  and  does  away  with 
sharp  corners,  especially  necessary  at  entrance 
to  pen.  Doors  to  the  pens  are  2'  wide ;  a  heavy 
hinge,  6"  butt  and  10"  strap,  with  bolts  and 
screws,  will  discourage  even  the  occasional  un- 
educated and  untamed  sow. 

"Tlie  hog  trough  is  conspicuous  for  its  ab- 
sence. Do  not  use  a  hog  trough  in  a  permanent 
hoghouse.  Above  all  things  do  not  build  one  in. 
No  amount  of  care  can  keep  a  trough  clean  in- 
side and  outside.  AVe  prefer  to  use  a  galvanized 
pan.  Those  we  have  are  27"  x  16"  and  5"  deep, 
a  very  good  size  and  depth  for  soav  and  her  little 
ones,  and  wlien  the  meal  is  over  the  pan  is  taken 
out  of  the  pen.  The  alley  between  the  pens  is 
6'  6"  Avide.  This  is  a  convenient  and  comfort- 
able width.  The  narrow  alley  is  a  nuisance,  and 
if  built  to  save  either  room  or  money  is  misplaced 
economy.  The  floor  of  the  alley  is  the  bare  con- 
crete, and  made  a  little  rough  by  sprinkling  with 
sand,  so  the  hogs  will  not  slip.  At  each  end  of 
the  alleyway  are  sliding  doors  the  full  width  of 
the  alleyway  and  6'  8"  high.  The  upper  win- 
dows are  5'  8"  x  2'  5",  double  sash,  each  sash 
with  two  panes  12"  x  30".  Both  sash  are  hung 
by  weights  so  they  may  be  raised  or  lowered, 
affording  splendid  ventilation.  These  large  up- 
per windows  should  never  be  omitted.  They 
throw  the  sunlight  down  into  the  back  row  of 
pens  instead  of  up  against  the  roof,  as  would  a 


smaller  Avindow.  The  loAver  Avindows  are  double 
AvindoAvs,  Avith  single  sash  2'  4"  x  2'  8"  and 
four  panes  12"  x  14".  These  sash  are  hung  at 
side  about  center,  so  the  top  Avill  SAving  in  and 
the  bottom  out.  "When  they  are  open  j^ou  Avill 
notice  the  fresh,  cool  air  comes  in  at  the  top,  and 
you  have  ventilation  and  an  abundance  of  fresh 
air  Avithout  any  direct  draught  on  the  pigs. 

"At  the  west  end  and  outside  of  the  farroAA'ing 
house  proper,  but  connected  Avith  it  by  sliding 
doors  located  just  under  the  loAver  Avest  Avindows, 
is  the  life-saving  station  in  tlie  AA'inter  pig  busi- 
ness— the  sun  room.  Here  Avarm  sunshine  and 
fresh  air  make  the  youngsters  happy  enough  to 
scrap,  and  so  they  doze  and  get  their  exercise  by 
turns  for  an  hour  or  more,  until  Avarm  lunch  is 
served  by  mamma  in  her  oaa'u  apartment.  Then  a 
little  "beauty  sleep"  and  outdoors  they  go  racing 
around  their  lot  like  the  lusty  youngsters  they 
are.  The  little  sun  room  shoAvn  in  Fig.  311  is 
invaluable.  The  glass  part  is  very  cheap.  In 
the  front  are  four  barn  sash  of  three  lights,  each 
10"  X  16" ;  top  glass  is  lapped  hothouse  fashion ; 
floor  dimensions  are  12'  x  3'.  We  get  a  Avarm 
floor  by  laying  up  a  brick  Avail  a  fcAV  inches  high 
and  filling  in  Avith  sand  and  laying  a  board  floor 
on  the  sand. 

"This  farroAA'ing  house  is  in  no  Avise  elaborate. 
It  is  substantial  and  aa'cII  built.  Several  causes 
Avhich  contributed  to  the  $500  cost  of  this  build- 
ing AA'ould  not  obtain  in  a  second  attempt  to- 
day." 

A  HOGHOUSE  FOR  BROOD  SOWS. 

This  plan  {Figs.  312  and  313)  is  for  tAA^o 
houses  for  three  soaa's  each.  There  is  practically 
no  increase  of  cost,  Avhile  there  is  great  gain  in 
the  ease  Avith  Avhich  the  smaller  building  can  be 
transferred  from  lot  to  lot.  Moreover,  this  plan 
enables  one  to  separate  soavs  so  as  to  accommo- 
date age  of  SOAA'S  and  time  of  farroAving.  When 
it  comes  to  feeding  pigs  or  shotes  they  will  do 
better  to  be  graded-  as  to  age  and  size.  The 
Avidth  of  the  building  is  8'  and  the  length  16' 
and  the  height  3'  2",  Avhich  enables  one  to  use 
16'  stuff  and  cut  AAith  no  AA'aste.  The  sills  and 
frame  can  be  made  of  2"  x  4"  stuff.  The  long 
sills  should  be  doubled  and  separated  by  inch 
blocks  every  4'.  This  Avill  giA-e  strength  and 
durability,  as  the  open  space  betAveen  the  sills 
Avill  let  them  dry  out  more  quickly  than  Avhen 
nailed  flat  together.  The  front  sloping  elevation 
of  2'  is  to  be  covered  Avith  flooring  excepting  a 
space  of  2'  x  2'  2"  in  front  of  each  pen.  This  Avill 
permit  the  use  of  a  sash  containing  six  8"  x  10" 
lights,  after  the  sloping  boards  are  put  in  place, 
leaving  an  opening  of  2'  x  1'  10".  Over  this  lay 
the  sash  Avhich  lap  over  the  boards  2"  on  each 


174 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


side.  Now  put  a  strip  an  inch  square  on  the 
under  side  of  the  projecting  roof,  allowing  the 
sash  to  be  drawn  to  one  side  for  ventilation. 
Instead  of  a  strip  below  put  two  buttons  to  lap 
over  the  lower  edge  of  the  sash  to  keep  the  wind 
from  lifting  it.  The  boards  for  this  sloping 
front  should  project  roof-like  at  the  foot  and  fit 
up  against  the  roof  at  the  top,  and  if  properly 
laid  the  sash  will  fit  snugly  and  move  to  one 
side  1"  or  2',  as  required  for  ventilation.     The 

GROUND   PLAN 


B.V'xS' 

S.V'x  8' 

s's'-'s' 

FIG.     312.        HOGHOUSE    FOR    BROOD    SOWS. 

Py. -  ^ 


^ 


■8 


FIG.    313.        HOGHOUSE    FOR    BROOD    SOWS     (END    SECTION). 

roof  may  be  of  shingles,  paper  or  metal.  The 
weak  place  of  all  such  houses  is  the  sill  resting 
on  the  ground.  It  will  pay  to  put  an  extra  sill 
under  this  frame  so  arranged  as  to  keep  the 
building  sills  dry.  The  two  partitions  in  each 
house  may  be  cut  from  16'  barn  boards  and 
dropped  into  slots  made  by  nailing  cleats  to  in- 
side of  frame  for  partition  boards  to  drop  into. 

A  TYPE  OF  HOG  SHELTER. 

An  Indiana  swine  breeder  is  thus  quoted:  "I 
have  tried  practically  all  of  the  individual  hog- 
houses  that  I  could  hear  of,  but  the  house  of 
which  I  submit  a  floor  plan  and  sketch  {Figs. 
314  and  315)  has  been  more  satisfactory  in  every 
respect.     It  affords  plenty  of  floor  space  for  an 


ordinary  sized  sow  and  litter,  and  is  light  and 
airy,  with  perfect  ventilation.  In  fine  weather 
the  larger  door  is  left  open;  this  closes  the 
smaller  door.  During  stormy  weather  the  large 
door  is  kept  closed;  the  small  door  then  affords 
ingress  and  egress  to  the  sow.  From  the  loca- 
tion of  the  small  door  it  is  practically  impossible 
in  the  stormiest  weather  for  the  bed  to  get  wet, 
and  we  have  had  sows  to  farrow  in  zero  weather 
and  as  yet  have  lost  no  pigs  on  that  account.  By 
buying  all  of  the  materials  the  house  will  cost 
besides  the  work  of  construction,  about  $6.25. 
Two  men  during  a  short  winter  day  can  con- 
struct one.     In  building  ours  we  used  frame 

SIDE  VIEW 


FIG.     314.        TYPE    OF     HOG     SHELTER. 

FLOOR  PLAN 
-6'  


GUARD  RAIL 


ANNEX 


GUARD  RAIL 


•3--- 
.    315. 


TYPE    OF     HOG     SHELTER. 


stuff  and  flooring  that  had  been  left  over  from 
other  buildings ;  this  materially  lessened  the  cost. 
On  almost  any  farm  in  the  timbered  regions  the 
majority  of  the  materials  can  be  had  with  little 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


lib 


trouble  and  at  small  cost.  The  house  can  be 
placed  on  runners  and  moved  wherever  needed. ' ' 
Commenting  on  this  hoghouse,  an  authority 
says:  "The  annex  to  the  individual  hoghouse, 
while  it  adds  to  the  cost  of  material  and  increases 
the  labor  of  construction,  gives  air  and  free- 
dom to  the  inmates.  Unless  the  sow  and  pigs  are 
to  vault  over  the  guard  rail  shown  between  the 
annex  and  the  pen  it  will  be  necessary  to  omit 
that  rail  and  have  guard  rails  on  only  three  sides, 
which  are  ample,  as  the  sow  can  not  crush  pigs 
against  open  space.  This  annex  acts  as  a  storm 
shield  or  door,  and  prevents  direct  draught  on 
the  inmates. ' ' 


A  HOGHOUSE  FOR  $400. 

L.  N.  Bonham  of  Ohio  thus  describes  the  $400 
hoghouse  shown  in  Figs.  317  to  319 :  "The  plan 
here  given  will  accommodate  10  sows  and  their 
pigs — or  more  by  removing  a  sow,  after  the  pigs 
are  old  enough  to  move,  to  other  quarters.  Sun- 
light and  good  ventilation  are  of  greater  im- 
portance than  convenience  for  herdsmen.  We 
have  tried  to  make  things  handy  and  have  a 
room  for  corn,  but  as  a  rule  we  do  not  advise 
storing  corn  in  a  crib  to  which  rats  may  have 
access  from  adjoining  buildings.  Unless  one  has 
a  eorncrib  near  it  will  be  a  vast  saving  of  steps 


FIG.    316.      ANOTHER    INDIVIDUAL    HOGHOUSE    COMMONLY    USED. 


ANOTHER  INDIVIDUAL  HOGHOUSE. 

This  house  is  used  at  the  Nebraska  Experiment 
Station  and  is  built  on  runners,  6'  x  8',  and 
floored.  (See  Fig.  316.)  The  sides  of  this  nest 
are  3'  high,  with  a  double  board  roof  having  a 
long  and  short  side,  the  short  side  of  the  roof 
opening  up  so  as  to  let  the  sun  into  the  pens  on 
warm  days,  or  it  can  be  held  partly  open  to  give 
ventilation  in  the  summer. 


to  have  some  com  in  the  hoghouse,  but  we  would 
advise  keeping  only  a  wagonload  or  so  in  the 
crib  here.  In  this  way  the  crib  floor  will  be 
cleared  of  corn  as  often  as  a  wagonload  of  corn 
is  fed  out,  and  this  will  prevent  its  becoming  a 
breeding  place  for  rats.  It  behooves  every  farm- 
er and  feeder  of  hogs  to  build  against  rats,  so  far 
as  posssible.  In  this  plan  we  have  a  cement  floor 
56'  X  24'.  There  is  no  place  for  rats  to  hide  ex- 
cept in  the  eorncrib  or  bedding  room  in  the  sec- 


176 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ond  floor.  If  these  are  emptied  frecjueiitly  it 
will  be  an  immense  check  on  rat  breeding.  Not- 
withstanding there  are  so  many  considerations 
in  favor  of  a  cement  floor,  we  advise  a  movable 
wooden  floor  over  the  cement  floor  of  the  breed- 
ing pens.  This  wooden  floor  may  be  5'  x  8",  suf- 
ficient for  the  bed,  keeping  the  sow  and  pigs 
from  the  chill  that  is  sure  to  come  from  lying  on 
the  cement  floor,  unless  bedding  is  very  abun- 
dant.   Opposite  to  the  corncrib  is  a  room  8'  x  8' 


for  ground  feed  and  a  space  8'  x  8'  for  a  slop 
barrel  and  pump  or  faucet,  if  one  has  water 
pressure  from  windmill,  tank  or  distant  spring, 
if  not  so  provided,  then  put  down  a  cistern  to 
receive  the  water  from  the  roof.  Here  is  oppor- 
tunity for  a  small  outlay  to  have  a  full  supply 
of  water.  While  one  is  at  it,  put  a  force  pump 
in  and  with  a  hose  be  able  to  flush  out  the 
alleyway  and  troughs  frequently,  and  in  warm 
weather  give  comfort  to  any  feeders  or  breeders 
that  may  be  in  the  house.  Room  and  chimney 
are  provided  for  a  stove  or  feed  cooker,  as  de- 
sired. A  ventilator  or  airshaft  beside  the  chim- 
ney will  give  ventilation  without  opening  win- 
dows in  severely  cold  weather.  Whenever  fire 
is  needed  ventilation  is  called  for,  since  it  is  not 


FIG.    318.      HOGHOUSE    FOR    $400     (SIDE    AND    END    ELEVATION). 


FIG.    319.       HOGHOUSE   FOR    $400. 


economy  to  try  to  heat  up  all  outdoors.  If  win- 
dows and  doors  are  properly  fitted  and  the  sid- 
ing is  good  or  double,  such  a  house  will  keep  out 
drafts  and  be  comfortable  without  a  fire.  It  is 
provided  for  to  meet  emergencies  of  cold  storms 
at  farrowing  time.  The  alley  is  8'  wide,  so  a 
wagon  or  cart  can  be  used  for  cleaning  the  house 
often  and  carrying  the  litter  to  tlie  fields  at  once, 
both  to  keep  the  surroundings  clean  and  get  the 
most  benefit  from  the  manure.  The  plan  does 
not  show  outside  pens,  which  are  necessary  in  all 
weather  when  soavs  or  pigs  can  go  outdoors.  The 
concrete  in  the  alleyway  should  be  5"  thick  and 
that  in  the  pens  3"  or  4".  The  estimated  cost 
of  this  house  complete,  not  including  a  cistern, 


SWINE  BARNS  AND  HOUSES. 


177 


is  $400.     From  the  plans  as  given  any  builder     nished  than  is  provided  it  becomes  too  hot  for 
can  furnish  an  itemized  bill  of  materials."  siimmer  use. 


HOUSE  FOR  TWO  BROOD  SOWS. 

This  house,  shown  in  Fig.  320,  8'  x  16',  is  ar- 
ranged for  two  brood  sows,  with  ample  light  in 
front  and  arranged  with  an  automatic  swing 
door  for  one  pen  and  a  full-height  door  cut  in 
two  parts  for  the  other  pen.  This  house  is  con- 
siderably warmer  than  the  single  nest,  and  when 
additional  warmth   is  secured  bv  the  use  of  a 


INDIVIDUAL  HOGHOUSES. 

A  ^Missouri  farmer  thus  describes  his  hog 
breeding  plant:  "My  lots  are  planned  to  come 
together  in  a  wedge  shape  with  an  apex  8'  wide 
running  back  40  rods;  8'  admits  a  wagon  and 
40  rods  long  permits  the  plow  and  long  stretches 
of  woven  wire  (see  Fig.  321).  Each  individual 
lot  is  well  sodded  with  a  mixture  of  red  and 


FIG.     320.       HOUSE    FOR     TWO     BROOD     SOWS      (ELEVATION). 


lantern  it  is  probable  that  it  can  be  made  warm 
enough  for  all  except  the  most  extreme  weather. 
As  a  rule,  two  brood  sows  with  their  litters  will 
occupy  one  house  without  disturbing  each  other 
or  without  the  litters  robbing  each  other.  The 
sows  can  also  easily  be  trained  to  occupy  separate 
nests,  which  prevent  the  danger  of  overlying 
young  pigs.  This  house  has  been  found  quite 
satisfactory.  The  cost  would  vary  with  locali- 
ties, but  somewhat  exceeds  $100.  It  is  built 
upon  runners  and  can  be  drawn  from  one  loca- 
tion to  another,  as  desired.  It  is  floored,  so  that 
it  is  always  thoroughly  dry.  One  objection  to 
this  house  is  that  unless  more  ventilation  is  fur- 


white  clover,  timothy,  red  top,  blue  grass,  or- 
chard grass  and  meadow  fescue,  and  contains 
140  square  yards.  In  this  lot  is  a  hoghouse  3' 
high  and  8'  square,  open  on  the  south  and  cov- 
ered with  galvanized  iron.  All  these  lots  con- 
verge to  a  point,  as  a  wheel.  The  hub  is  where 
the  steps  are  saved  in  feeding  and  watering.  At 
this  hub  we  have  a  small  feedbin,  and  before 
putting  in  the  feed  the  hub  was  graded  level  for 
all  six  pens.  Here  we  have  cement  troughs  con- 
nected with  a  tee  to  a  main  pipe  the  full  dis- 
tance of  all  pens,  so  that  each  cement  trough  in 
each  pen  being  level,  when  one  is  filled  all  are 
the  same,  and  watering  can  be  done  in  short 


178 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


order.  The  pipe  is  large,  and  if  mud  collects 
in  these  tees  or  the  main  the  plug  can  be  un- 
screwed and  the  system  flushed,  cleaning  all.  In 
this  hub  we  have  under  the  storage  grain  bin  a 
trough  for  sweet  milk.  Of  course  a  little  corn  is 
kept  here  all  the  time,  and  one  would  be  sur- 
prised how  soon  the  little  fellows  learn  the  way 
in  and  out.  They  become  weaned  sooner,  learn 
to  depend  upon  themselves  and  tease  the  sow 
less  than  when  in  a  close  house.  The  individual 
hoghouse  is  away  from  noise.  The  sow's  in- 
stinct tells  her  to  hide,  and  she  must  come  up 
for  feed  to  the  hub  before  she  can  have  anything 


8-I' 

n  HOC  Mousi 

^.^ 

^^^ 

^^^ 

"'iJo  S«  MOS 

riHMHOUSl 

_-— — 

krrr::;^^^^^^^^ 

140  so  RODS 

n  M06M0USt 

^^^^^^^^^^^T^ 

J40  scnoos 

nHOSHousr 

~~.«.^^         I40J(1ROM 

-^ — ___ 

Dnoohousc 

^■~~-- 

Dh06  HOUSE 

FIG.     321.        INDIVIDUAL     HOGHOUSES     (PLAN). 

except  water.  This  is  generally  three  days ;  then 
she  can  digest  and  assimilate  what  is  given  her 
without  playing  havoc  with  the  litter.  I  do  not 
allow  the  use  of  these  individual  pastures  to 
sows  younger  than  two  years  old,  as  they  are  un- 
certain, but  if  a  good  sow  is  found  she  should 
not  be  known  as  a  grass  widow  on  the  meat  marts 
until  eight  or  ten  years  old. ' ' 

A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  HOGHOUSE. 

The  hoghouse  illustrated  in  Fig.  322  is 
described  as  follows :  * '  We  make  it  6'  square  on 
the  ground,  both  doors  to  be  hinged  so  they  will 
open  and  close  readily ;  12'  boards  make  the  side 
and  roof.  Use  good  soft  pine  flooring;  it  is 
lighter  and  much  easier  to  move  when  necessary 
than  heavier  lumber,  4  pieces  2"  x  4"  and  6'  long 


are  for  sills ;  2  pieces  2"  x  4"  and  6'  long  are  for 
ridge  and  plate.  The  door  in  the  roof  can  be 
opened  when  the  sun  shines.  Sunshine  is  the 
best  tonic  known  for  little  pigs  in  early  spring, 
and  the  door  is  essential  when  the  sow  needs 
attention  at  pigging  time  as  a  means  of  en- 
trance, and,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  a  very  hasty 
exit.  We  lose  a  very  small  per  cent  of  pigs  far- 
rowed in  these  houses. 

A  SINGLE  HOG  BARN. 

A  swine  breeder  asking  for  a  plan  for  a  single 
hoghouse  with  one  row  of  pens  with  facilities 
to  let  in  sunlight,  is  thus  accommodated:  As 
light  and  air  are  more  readily  admitted  from 
above  than  from  the  sides  of  pens,  and  as  the 
windows  are  not  so  liable  to  be  broken,  we  sug- 
gest a  roof  with  rafters  one  part  long  and  the 
other  short,  and  with  a  steep  pitch  at  one  end. 
With  a  single  row  of  pens  the  feeding  usually  is 
done  outside.  Where  there  is  much  snow  the 
floors  must  be  cleaned  before  feeding.  Pens 
6'  X  8'  are  large  enough  for  individual  houses  set 
in  a  lot  where  sow  and  pigs  can  graze ;  but  when 
we  build  several  pens  in  one  house  a  small  lot 
is  needed  in  front  of  each  pen.  Hence  8'  is  about 
as  little  space  as  it  is  wise  to  use.  A  pen  8'  x  8' 
with  a  lot  8'  X  10'  in  front  is  large  enough  for  a 


FIG.    322.       GOOD   TYPE    OF    HOGHOUSE. 


FIG.    323.       A   SINGLE    HOG    BARN     (END    SECTION). 

SOW  and  litter  for  the  first  six  weeks,  after  which 
the  pigs  may  be  fed  with  others  away  from  the 
sows.  Providing  for  this  lot  in  front  make  the 
pens  8'  X  8'.  This  will  require  the  long  rafter 
to  be  8'  long  and  the  short  one  2'.  The  sash  is 
2-1"  X  28"  with  six  lights  8"  x  10".  The  sash  is 
as  wide  as  the  space  between  the  rafters  from 
center  to  center.  The  sash  are  hinged  at  the  top 
and  can  be  lifted  from  bottom  for  ventilation  and 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


179 


yet  keep  out  rain.  For  each  pen  there  may  be 
four  sash,  but  two  will  be  abundant,  and  the  in- 
tervening space  covered  as  the  roof.  The  parti- 
tions between  pens  will  tie  the  building  together. 
The  height  of  building  is  4';  thus  2"  x  4"  x  16' 
stuff  of  16'  boards  cut  without  waste.  Such  pens 
need  floors  of  either  concrete  or  wood.    Concrete 


is  cheapest  in  the  long  run,  and  provided  a  slat 
floor  is  placed  under  the  bedding  concrete  has 
many  advantages.  Shiplap  lumber  put  on  per- 
pendicularly does  for  siding  if  good  and  free 
from  loose  knots,  but  barn  boards  with  cracks 
battened  are  more  reliable,  and  warmer,  and 
stronger.     (See  Fig.  323.) 


SHEEP  BARN5  AND  SHEDS. 


In  the  Old  "World  there  is  little  housing  of 
sheep.  In  England  many  flocks  are  in  the  open 
the  year  round;  in  France  they  are  housed  and 
artificially  fed  winter  and  summer  in  some  parts, 
mainly  no  doubt  because  of  the  great  value  of 
the  land  and  the  cheap  labor.  In  America  cold 
winters,  drenching  storms  and  intense  summer 
heat:  are  encountered,  so  that  there  is  in  the 
region  north  of  Tennessee  and  east  of  Colorado 
need  for  provision  for  shelter. 

Inexperienced  flockmasters  err  in  making  too 
careful  provision  for  shelter.  Sheep  need  to  be 
dry  and  out  of  the  wind — that  is  all.  ]\Iany  ex- 
pensive sheep  barns  fail  because  of  lack  of  fresh 
air.  Sheep  have  been  fed  in  these  expensive 
barns  at  a  loss,  and  in  later  years  they  have  been 
fed  in  the  open  yard  alongside  the  barn,  the  feed 
being  stored  within  at  a  profit. 

The  sheep  is  not  a  hardy  animal.  A  native 
of  mountainous  regions,  it  is  used  to  having  its 
lungs  full  of  pure,  fresh  air.  Deprived  of  this 
no  amount  of  feed  or  coaxing  will  make  it  thrive. 
Some  one  has  said  that  "the  worst  enemy  of  a 
sheep  in  the  barn  is  another  sheep."  The  sheep 
barn  then  needs  primarly  two  things :  a  water- 
tight roof  and  provision  for  the  entrance  of  an 
abundance  of  fresh  air.  Add  to  these  things 
provision  for  storing  a  large  amount  of  forage 
and  a  supply  of  pure  water,  and  the  sheep  barn 
should  prove  satisfactory,  whether  it  is  built 
cheaply  or  expensively. 

Perhaps  the  best  manner  of  ventilation  is  by 
having  all  of  two  sides  provided  with  continu- 
ous doors,  divided  horizontally,  the  lower  half 
swinging  outwardly  like  a  gate,  the  upper  half 
lifting  up  horizontally,  as  a  box  lid  lifts,  and 
held  up  by  props  hinged  to  the  doors.  These 
doors  may  then  be  opened  slightly  to  admit 
some  air  during  a  blizzard,  wider  on  a  cold  day, 
entirely  up  whenever  the  weather  is  warm  and 
the  air  sluggish,  and  one  side  may  be  left  wide 
open  at  all  times.  It  is  better  to  leave  off  the 
upper  doors  altogether,  leaving  mere  open  spaces 


there,  than  to  provide  doors  and  then  forget  to 
open  them. 

Sheep  bear  crowding  together  in  the  fattening 
flock,  and  six  square  feet  of  floor  space  to  a 
fattening  lamb  eight  months  old  is  ample.  Twice 
that  will  suffice  for  a  pregnant  ewe.  Crowding 
them  without  providing  fresh  air  is  of  course  to 
be  avoided. 

Movable  racks  are  best.  Make  them  of  such 
length  that  they  may  be  set  to  form  partitions 
in  the  barn.  The  most  economical  hay-racks  are 
those  in  which  the  sheep  thrusts  its  head  in  be- 
tween the  slats,  then  eats  without  pulling  the 
hay  out  and  trampling  it  beneath  the  feet.  Try 
to  prevent  this  waste  by  making  very  narrow 
slats  and  the  waste  is  doubled,  as  all  hay  is  first 
drawn  through  the  narrow  spaces  before  being 
consumed  and  very  much  of  it  is  wasted.  Pro- 
vide plenty  of  racks,  so  that  every  lamb  can  eat  at 
the  same  time.  It  matters  little  how  many  sheep 
are  kept  in  a  pen  if  the  air  and  water  are  pure 
and  each  lamb  has  a  chance  to  eat  at  will.  Cer- 
tainly in  the  breeding  flock  there  must  be  sep- 
arate pens  for  the  ewes  advanced  in  pregnancy 
and  many  small  pens  for  ewes  that  have  lambed. 
These  pens  may  be  built  of  simple  tight  panels 
about  4'  high  and  5'  long,  two  panels  hinged  to- 
gether, and  when  opened  at  right  angles  and 
hooked  into  a  corner  of  the  room  they  form  the 
other  two  sides  of  a  very  convenient  small  pen. 

A  small  yard  paved  or  concreted  attached  to 
the  sheep  barn  is  indispensable.  Do  not  make 
it  large,  as  it  will  cause  loss  of  droppings  and 
be  more  difficult  to  keep  dry. 

The  fattening  flock  should  be  confined  to  the 
barn  at  all  times  save  when  feed  is  being  put  in ; 
then  it  is  convenient  to  run  them  in  the  yard. 
In  this  way  the  saving  of  manure  is  material 
and  the  lambs  or  sheep  fatten  faster,  as  they 
have  little  exercise.  There  should  be  provided 
inside  a  flood  of  pure  air  for  them. 

Water  should  be  in  abundant  supply,  and  so 
convenient  of  access  that  the  sheep  have  no  diffi- 


180 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


culty  at  any  time  in  satisfying  their  thirst.  It 
should  be  kept  pure  enough  for  man's  use.  Sheep 
are  dainty  in  their  appetites,  and  readily  detect 
foulness  in  the  water. 

.  When  the  sheds  are  kept  well  littered  with 
dry  straw  there  is  no  harm  in  permitting  the 
manure  to  accumulate  to  considerable  depth. 
The  tread  of  the  slieeps'  feet  prevents  its  heat- 
ing, and  all  is  saved.  It  should  be  hauled  out, 
however,  as  fast  as  the  condition  of  the  fields 
will  allow  and  all  cleaned  out  on  the  approach  of 
warm  weather.  Sheep  manure  being  rich  in 
nitrogen  it  is  good  economy  to  sprinkle  the  barn 
frequently  with  finely  ground  phosphate  rock  or 
phosphate  flour  or  with  acidulated  rock  or  acid 
phosphate.  Applying  the  manure  to  the  land 
with  a  manure  spreader  it  may  be  put  on  more 
thinly  when  so  treated.    The  manure  from  sheep 


barn  is  a  small  turnip  house.  On  all  sides  of  the 
barn  are  hay  self-feeders.  The  wings  are  32' 
wide.  The  plan  shown  in  Fig,  325  gives  a  clear 
idea  as  to  arrangement. 

A  NEBRASKA  SHEEP  BARN. 

On  a  Nebraska  farm  where  from  5,000  to 
7,000  lambs  annually  are  raised  two  large  barns 
have  been  constructed  according  to  the  affixed 
plans.  The  barn  in  which  the  greater  number  of 
the  lambs  are  dropped  is  shown  in  the  ground 
plan.  Fig.  326,  lower  design.  There  is  a  loft 
above  in  which  hay  is  stored  and  chutes  down 
which  it  is  thrown  to  be  fed  in  the  permanent 
hay-rack  shown.  This  hay-rack  partitions  off  the 
space  so  that  the  central  part  is  used  for  one 
class  of  ewes,  generally  the  ones  least  advanced 


FIG.     324.      A     WISCONSIN     SHEEP    BARN      (ELEVATION). 


barns  forms  a  considerable  source  of  profit,  and 
has  made  some  farms  famous. 

A  dipping  tank  is  part  of  the  indispensable 
sheep  barn  furniture.  It  may  be  of  galvanized 
iron  or  cement.  It  may  be  16"  wide  at  the  top, 
8"  at  the  bottom,  4'  long  at  the  bottom  and  10' 
at  the  top,  giving  an  incline  on  which  sheep  may 
walk  out.  All  sheep  that  have  traveled  on  cars 
are  probably  infected  with  scab  germs.  Dip  them 
thoroughly  before  they  go  into  the  sheds.  Turn 
them  in  wet  and  allow  them  to  rub  their  wet 
sides  against  the  posts  and  racks.  All  home 
slieep  are  apt  to  be  ticky.  Dip  them  once  a  year 
and  the  ticks  may  be  eradicated.  There  is  no 
stock  on  the  farm  more  miserable  than  poorly 
cared-for  sheep. 

A  WISCONSIN  SHEEP  BARN. 

This  barn  built  by  F.  W.  Morgan  in  Wiscon- 
sin is  of  ordinary  balloon  frame  construction 
ceiled  on  inside  and  outside  with  shingle  roof. 
{Fig.  324.)  It  is  182'  wide  by  155'  long  in  the 
shape  of  a  cross.  The  entire  floor  is  of  grout 
construction.  In  the  front  is  a  shearing  and  en- 
gine room,  and  in  one  corner  of  the  center  of  the 


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FIG.    325.       A    WISCONSIN    SHEEP    BARN     (FLOOR    PLAN), 

in  pregnancy,  while  those  showing  nearness  to 
lambing  are  placed  in  the  outer  space. 

The  small  pens  on  three  sides  of  the  barn  are 
for  the  reception  of  ewes  after  lambing,  or  in 
some  cases  before  lambing.  They  are  4'  x  6'  in 
size,   furnished  with   convenient   gates,   with   a 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND   SHEDS. 


181 


wooden  trough  comTnunieating  through  the  par- 
tition to  furnish  two  pens  with  water,  which  is 
carried  in  ouekets.  There  is  also  a  small  feed 
trough  to  each  pen. 

The  hay  feeding  arrangement  is  unique.  At 
the  outside  of  the  building  there  is  a  bin-like 
addition  with  hinged  lids  that  open  upward,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  326.  This  is  the  hay  feeder.  Par- 
titions across  the  front  keep  the  lambs  out  while 
allowing  the  hay  to  be  pulled  through  readily. 
The  hay  is  placed  in  the  feeders  from  wagons 
along  the  outside.  Where  hay  is  generally 
stacked  outdoors,  this  arrangement  has  much  to 
commend  it. 

Grain  is  fed  the  ewes  before  landiing  in  a 
small  yard  outside  the  barn.  The  dimensions  of 
the  building  are  88'  x  112',  the  basement  story 
10'  high.  The  mows  should  have  a  height  of  at 
least  10'  at  the  plates,  making  a  20'  post. 


A  fence  divides  the  barn  lengthwise  in  the 
center  and  a  system  of  gates  is  so  conveniently 
arranged  that  sheep  are  very  easily  managed  in 
it.  Allowing  12  square  feet  to  the  ewe  and 
lamb,  this  barn  will  carry  2,000  ewes.  It  will 
not  hold  a  liberal  amount  of  hay  for  that  num- 
ber, and  the  chief  and  only  important  defect  of 
the  building  is  its  lack  in  height. 

It  is  a  question  that  must  largely  be  settled  by 
environment  and  individual  preference  whether 
this  is  a  cheaper  type  of  barn  than  the  barn  in 
which  the  hay  is  stored  in  lofts  and  the  entire 
floor  space  devoted  to  the  sheep.  In  each  of 
these  barns  hay  is  rapidly  placed  by  machinery 
and  horse-lifting.  Wliile  no  elevation  of  these 
buildings  is  shown,  the  intending  builder  can 
readily  adapt  another  elevation  to  fit,  choosing 
from  among  the  forms  of  pole  or  joist  frames. 


FIG.    326.      A    NEBRASKA    SHEEP    BARN     (ARRANGEMENT    OF    INTERIOR). 


Fig.  326  shows  a  very  large  western  barn,  the 
dimensions  of  which  are  120'  x  288'.  See  upper 
part  of  plan.  It  is  comparatively  low,  has 
no  loft,  but  instead  is  more  in  the  nature  of  a 
covered  yard.  The  hay  is  stacked  in  this  build- 
ing in  long  ricks  or  mows  16'  x  56'.  There  are 
eight  of  these  ricks.  The  roof  of  the  building 
rises  in  steps,  there  being  plenty  of  windows 
and  change  of  air  through  them,  so  that  the  light 
and  ventilation  are  good.  Self-feeders  are  pro- 
vided in  this  barn,  so  that  winter  lambs  may  be 
produced  and  old  ewes  fattened  with  their  lambs. 


A  COLLEGE  SHEEP  BARN. 

The  sheep  barn  built  several  years  ago  at  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  is  believed  to  em- 
brace many  features  worthy  of  general  adoption 
by  practical  sheep-breeders,  and  several  points 
that  are  vitally  essential  to  successful  sheep  hus- 
bandry are  brought  out. 

The  building  (see  Fig.  330)  consists  of  a  main 
part  24'  x  30'  two  stories  high,  under  the  whole 
of  which  is  a  root  cellar  and  two  wings  reaching 
out  at  right  angles  from  it.     The  east  wing  is 


182 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


125'  long,  18'  wide  and  one  s.^ry  high.     Only  a 
part  of  this  is  shown  in  the  cut. 

The  south  wing  is  100'  long,  18'  wide  and 
two  stories  high.  An  alley  or  passageway  4' 
wide  is  partitioned  off  along  the  entire  west  side 
of  the  building  by  means  of  a  low,  fence-like 


PIG.    327.       A    COLLEGE    SHEEP   BABN    (SLIDING   GATE) 


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FIG.     328.       A    COLLEGE    SHEEP    BARN     (FLOOR). 

partition  (see  Fig.  328).  This  leaves  a  space 
14'  wide  and  a  little  over  83'  in  length,  exclu- 
sive of  a  lambing  room  that  may  be  occupied  by 
the  flock  as  one  large  room,  or  it  may  be  divided 
into  any  desired  number  of  pens  up  to  ten  by 
means  of  a  light  but  strongly  fastened  panel  that 


rests  in  grooves  made  for  it  at  each  end  (see 
Fig.  327).  These  panels  are  easily  managed, 
and  when  placed  in  position  are  entirely  secure 
without  fastenings  of  any  kind. 

Since  it  has  been  explained  how  all  the  space 
in  the  shed  may  be  used  as  one  room,  we  will 
from  now  on  consider  the  building  as  it  is  when 
divided  into  ten  parts.  Each  pen  is  8'  4"  wide 
and  is  entered  from  the  passageway  through  a 
sliding  gate  (see  Fig.  327)  that  is  suspended 
from  a  2"  x  4"  scantling  which  is  fastened  in  a 
horizontal  position  to  the  upright  pieces  of  the 
passageway  partition. 

Each  pen  is  provided  with  a  low  flat-bottomed 
trough  for  the  feeding  of  grain  and  also  a  large 
hay  or  fodder  rack,  as  in  Fig.  329.  This  hay- 
rack is  made  with  a  tight  front  which  prevents 
chaff  and  dust  from  falling  into  the  eyes  and 
fleece  of  the  sheep  while  feeding,  and  is  also  ad- 
justable so  that  not  only  the  angle  of  the  front 
but  the  width  of  the  opening  at  the  bottom  where 
the  sheep  throw  the  feed  out  may  be  changed 
to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  feed  that  is  being 
used.  The  feeder  or  trough  that  is  below  the 
opening  where  the  feed  is  drawn  out  serves  an 
admirable  purpose  in  catching  all  the  finer  parts 
of  the  hay  or  fodder  that  would  otherwise  be 
trampled  under  foot  and  wasted.  This  hay-rack, 
as  illustrated  in  Fig.  329,  can  easily  be  changed 
so  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  ordinary  feed- 
ing by  making  it  so  that  sheep  can  feed  from 
both  sides  and  long  enough  to  reach  across  the 
shed.  It  may  serve  the  double  purpose  of  feed- 
rack  and  partition. 

Experince  has  taught  that  adequate  ventila- 
tion must  be  provided  in  all  sheep  buildings  if 
trouble  in  their  management  would  be  avoided, 
and  it  appears  that  the  building  that  is  best 
adapted  to  the  successful  care  of  a  flock  is  the 


FIG.     329.       A     COLLEGE     SHEEP    BARN     (HAT -RACKS     AND     WINDOW     DEVICE). 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


183 


one  tliat  may  be  the  most  readily  and  completely 
changed  from  an  open  to  a  closed  shed,  accord- 
ing as  the  weather  makes  one  or  the  other  of  the 
conditions  essential.  In  recognition  of  these 
necessities  each  pen  has  double  doors  that  when 
opened  out  into  the  yard  make  an  opening  that 
lacks  only  38"  of  being  as  wide  as  the  pen.  The 
manner  in  which  these  doors  are  operated  and 
fastened  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  327.  One  door  is 
bolted  securely  at  the  top  and  bottom  by  bolts 
operated  by  a  level,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  and 
the  other  one  fastened  to  it  by  means  of  an  or- 
dinary thumb-latch,  so  that  one  or  both  doors 
may  be  opened  at  will.  A  slight  upward  move- 
ment of  the  lever  allows  both  doors  to  swing 
open,  and  when  pushed  shut  a  similar  down- 
ward movement  locks  them  safely. 

Over  these  double  doors  are  windows  that  are 
the  same  width  as  the  doors  and  2'  high.  These 
windows  are  hinged  at  the  top  and  are  opened 
and  closed  from  the  passageway  by  means  of  a 
rope  that  runs  over  two  small  pulleys.  The  win- 
dows are  provided  with  a  fastening  device  {Fig. 


floor  of  each  pen.  These  shafts  (see  Fig.  330) 
are  simply  wooden  boxes  that  start  a  foot  from 
the  floor  and  extend  up  through  the  roof  as  high 
as  the  peak.  They  are  made  by  nailing  two  8" 
and  two  10"  boards  together.  Near  the  bottom 
on  one  side  of  the  shaft  is  an  opening  for  the 
admission  of  air,  the  flow  of  which  can  be  regu- 
lated by  a  door  that  is  hinged  at  the  bottom  and 
pushed  into  the  shaft. 

A  lambing-room  occupies  the  space  of  two 
pens  in  the  partition  adjoining  the  main  barn, 
It  is  14'  X  16  2-3'.  This  room  is  inclosed  by  tight 
walls  on  all  four  sides,  with  an  outside  door  and 
a  door  leading  to  the  shepherd's  room.  The  wall 
next  to  the  alleyway  and  that  next  the  first  pen 
are  provided  with  wide  hanging  doors  hinged 
above,  extending  horizontally,  which  reach  from 
about  2'  below  the  ceiling  to  a  point  4'  above  the 
floor.  In  cold  weather  they  are  fastened  down ; 
at  other  times  they  are  swung  to  the  ceiling, 
leaving  the  pen  light  and  airy.  By  means  of 
movable  partitions  this  will  accommodate  six  or 
eight  ewes  at  lambing  time. 


FIG.    330.       A   COLLEGE    SHEEP  BARN    (SIDE   ELEVATIONS   AND   PENS). 


329)  that  works  automatically.  A  pull  on  the 
rope  from  the  passageway  unlocks  the  window 
and  raises  it  at  the  same  time.  When  the  rope 
is  released  the  window  closes  and  locks  itself. 
Since  the  windows  are  operated  from  the  hall- 
way, time  is  saved  and  annoyance  and  confusion 
to  the  sheep  are  prevented. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
readily  the  barn  may  be  converted  into  an  open 
shed.  If  the  weather  is  stormy  but  not  cold  the 
flock  can  be  kept  in  the  barn  with  the  doors 
closed  and  the  large  window  left  wide  open, 
which  will  insure  the  admission  of  an  abundance 
of  fresh  air  without  the  bad  results  following  the 
exposure  to  a  draught  directly  upon  their  bodies. 
Should  it  become  necessary  to  close  the  barn 
tight  there  still  is  ventilation  by  means  of  shafts 
that  are  constantly  carrying  off  air  from  near  the 


The  second  story  is  also  arranged  for  sheep. 
The  floor  is  constructed  of  1"  matched  material 
with  a  coating  of  gas  tar  mopped  on  while  hot. 
There  are  no  permanent  partitions  of  any  kind 
upstairs.  The  space  is  divided  by  means  of  light 
fence  panels.  The  sheep  in  going  to  and  from 
the  second  story  pass  up  and  down  through  a 
chute  at  the  end  of  the  barn  {Figs.  330  and 
328). 

The  east  or  one-story  wing  has  a  4'  passage- 
way along  the  north  side  which  leaves  a  room 
14'  wide  by  125'  in  length.  This  may  be  occu- 
pied as  one  room  or  divided  into  any  number 
of  pens  up  to  15,  which  is  the  maximum. 
The  gates  and  panels  are  similar  to  those  de- 
scribed in  the  south  wing. 

A  reference  to  Fig.  330  will  show  that  the 
main   barn   is   arranged   to   be   convenient   for 


18i 


FAR3I  BUILDINGS. 


both  wings.  The  scales  are  located  in  the  cor- 
ner where  the  passageways  from  the  wings  meet. 
By  this  plan  the  sheep  may  be  let  out  from 
any  pen  in  either  wing  and  driven  along  the 
passageway  to  the  scales.  The  shepherd's  room 
is  in  the  southwest  corner  and  by  means  of 
small  windows  in  the  partition  a  view  of  the 
w^hole  interior  of  both  wings  may  be  had.  A 
door  from  this  room  opens  directly  into  the 
lambing-room  and  if  necessary  the  lambing- 
room  can  be  warmed  from  the  shepherd's  room. 
The  dotted  lines  beside  the  shearing  and  in- 
spection floor  in  Fig.  328  represent  a  railing  3' 
high  that  forms  the  passageway  partition,  and 
the  space  between  this  railing  and  the  shepherd's 
room  is  used  as  a  shearing  floor.  Feeding  bins 
and  stairways  leading  to  the  second  story  of 
the  south  wing  and  to  the  root  cellar  below  oc- 
cupy the  rest  of  the  space  on  this  floor,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  328. 

A  BABY  MUTTON  FACTORY. 

A  moment's  study  of  Figs.  331,  332  and  333 
will  show  that  the  dominant  ideas  about  the  con- 
struction of  this  building  are  ventilation,  light 
and  sunshine — three  things  absolutely  essential 
to  success  in  raising  baby  mutton. 

The  building  faces  the  southeast  and  is  26' 
X  52'  with  16'  posts.  The  lower  story  is  7',  the 
upper  9',  and  as  the  rafters  have  a  rise  of  10' 
there  is  ample  space  for  hay  and  fodder.     The 


FIG.     3  31.       A    BABY    MUTTON    FACTORY     (ELEVATION). 

windows  in  front  are  3'  x  6'  and  the  sash  are 
raised  and  lowered  at  will.  Those  in  the  end  are 
hinged  to  open  inside.  Around  the  back  and 
northeast  end  above  the  nail  tie  are  six  doors 
each  24"  x  30".  A  10'  flap  door  admits  the 
sheep  without  crowding. 

During  the  winter  there  are  often  spells  of 
warm,  muggy  weather  which  make  ventilation  a 
serious  problem.  At  such  times  the  small  doors 
should  be  opened  and  the  lower  sash  raised. 
This  admits  fresh  air  next  the  ground  and  any 
unpleasant  odors  are  quickly  dispelled.  Every 
foot  of  floor  space  is  utilized,  and  the  hay  racks 


are  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  furnish 
resting  places  for  the  lambs.  The  water  is 
brought  by  piping  from  a  nearby  wind-pump. 
The  trough  is  an  8'  galvanized  iron  one  hung 
in  pivots  at  each  end  and  can  quickly  be  tipped 
over  for  cleaning. 

A  bran  bin  reaching  from  the  nail  tie  of  the 
lower  story  to  the  nail  tie  of  the  upper  story 
holds  two  tons  and  does  not  rob  the  sheep  of 
any  of  the  floor  space.  A  paddock  40'  x  50'  at 
the  west  end,  placed  there  after  the  photo  was 


FIG.    332.       A    BABY    MUTTON    FACTORY     (FRAME). 


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FIG.     333.       A    BABY     MUTTON    FACTORY     (GROUND    PLAN). 

taken,  gives  ample  room  for  exercise  when  the 
weather  is  good.  The  building  is  largely  tenon 
and  mortise,  but  the  three  inside  bents  are 
somewhat  different.  The  long  braces  are  about 
25'  long,  are  spiked  to  the  rafters  above  (see 
Fig.  332)  and  the  posts  below  and  rest  on  the 
foundation.  They  are  also  spiked  to  the  girders 
and  to  the  short  braces,  which  are  2"  x  6".  This 
makes  a  strong  brace  and  leaves  unobstructed 
room  for  the  hay  fork. 

The  frame  and  joists  are  of  oak;  the  rafters 
of  sugar  tree ;  the  mow  floor  and  nail  ties  of 
elm ;    the  siding  of  pine  shiplap ;    the  sheathing 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND   SHEDS. 


185 


rough  pine;  the  roofing,  felt.  The  foundation 
is  made  by  placing  stone  pillars  under  the  posts 
and  filling  the  space  between  with  bowlders, 
gravel  and  cement.  Therefore  there  are  no  cold 
draughts  near  the  ground  in  rough  weather. 
Two  hay  chutes  drop  the  feed  directly  into  the 
long  rack.  These  and  the  stairway  assist  in  mak- 
ing the  ventilation  perfect. 

A  UTAH  SHEEP  SHED. 

Willard  Hansen's  Utah  sheep  barns  or  sheds 
(Figs.  334  and  335)  are  large  enough  to  ac- 
commodate 500  ewes  and  lambs  and  600  to  700 
yearlings.  In  the  breeding  shed  there  are  10 
large  pens  32'  square,  planned  for  the  accom- 
modation of  500  ewes.  The  division  between 
the  sections  is  a  long  feed  rack.     Each  section 


may  be  divided  into  four  smaller  pens.  A 
movable  hurdle  from  the  water  trough  to  the 
door  divides  into  two  and  by  swinging  the  lamb- 
creep  into  place  two  other  divisions  are  made. 
In  the  center  of  the  pen  facing  south  is  a  door 
16'  wide  and  4'  high;  above  this  are  two  doors 
8'  wide  which  swing  in,  and  on  either  side  of 
these  two  other  doors  which  also  swing  in.  The 
windows  above  the  center  doors  may  also  be 
opened  by  swinging  in  from  the  bottom.  This 
arrangement  makes  it  very  easy  to  turn  this 
into  an  open  or  closed  shed,  as  the  weather  may 
demand.  The  water  trough  is  of  galvanized 
iron  and  the  amount  of  water  is  regulated  by 
an  automatic  float.  As  will  be  noted  the  loca- 
tion of  this  water  trough  is  sucli  that  tlie  sheep 
in  all  four  pens  into  which  the  larger  pen  may 
be  divided  have  access  to  it.     The  doors  in  the 


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BOTTOM  DOOR; 


CROSS  SECTION  or  SHEER SH£X> 


FIG.    334.     A  UTAH   SHEEP   SHED    (ARRANGEMENT   AND  CROSS-SECTION). 


186 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


passageway  on  the  north  are  arranged  to  give 
greatest  facility  in  changing  sheep  from  pen  to 
pen.  In  the  lambing  season  Mr.  Hansen  keeps 
the  ewes  with  twins  and  triplets  in  the  smaller 
pens  where  he  has  opportunity  to  give  them  ex- 
tra care  if  needed.  Later  these  small  pens  with 
the  lamb  creeps  in  position  are  used  to  feed  the 
lambs  their  grain  and  some  choice  hay  for  their 
special  benefit.  At  one  end  of  the  shed  are  the 
lambing  pens ;  a  section  is  provided  with  a  stove 
where  weak  lambs  may  be  cared  for.  At  this 
end  also  is  the  granary.  Above  the  sheep  pens 
there  is  storage  room  for  about  100  tons  of  hay. 
The  rest  of  the  hay  is  stacked  about  100'  west 
of  the  shed.  In  the  winter  the  hay  is  loaded 
from  the  stack  onto  a  wagon  and  with  slings 
and  a  derrick  from  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  of 
hay  is  transferred  at  one  lift  to  the  car  and 
from  there  through  the  hay  chutes  to  the  man- 
gers below. 

South  of  the  sheds  are  the  yards  or  runs.    By 
the   arrangement   of   the   door   and   a   gate,   as 


in  moderate  amounts  in  bins  built  above  the 
racks  at  the  side. 

The  plans  {Figs.  336  and  337)  show  a  build- 
ing 36'  square,  with  posts  set  12'  apart.  The 
shed  at  the  side  is  also  12'  wide  and  36'  long. 
It  is  built  with  a  brick,  stone  or  wooden  wall 
4'  high,  all  above  being  glass,  set  as  greenhouse 
glass. 

The  barn  should  face  east  and  west,  so  that 
the  glass  shed  may  be  on  the  south  side.  At  the 
end  there  are  doors  at  each  bent  so  that  wagons 
may  readily  pass  through  to  remove  the  manure. 
These  doors  are  all  in  two  parts,  the  upper  part 
hinging  at  its  upper  edge  and  raising  up  as  an 
awning  rises,  the  lower  half  swinging  as  a  gate. 
It  will  be  noted  in  the  floor  plan  that  there 
are  two  posts,  set  opposite  the  door  posts  and 
2'  away,  against  which  the  doors  may  be  fastened 
if  desired;  this  gives  the  sheep  opportunity  to 
pass  around  the  end  of  the  hay-racks,  or  when 
the  doors  are  closed  the  barn  is  divided  by  the 
hay-racks  into  three  long  pens. 


FIG.     335.       A    UTAH     SHEEP     SHED      (ELEVATION). 


shown,  there  is  either  a  driveway  16'  wide  along 
the  whole  front  of  the  shed  or  an  open  passage 
for  the  sheep  from  the  pen  to  the  yard.  The 
shed  on  the  north  is  for  feeding  the  lambs  dur- 
ing their  first  winter.  The  arrangement  is  simi- 
lar to  the  breeding  shed,  but  this  is  open  in 
front  of  each  pen,  no  doors  being  provided.  The 
hay  is  thrown  in  from  the  wagon  on  the  north 
through  doors  at  the  end  of  each  manger.  The 
sheep  can  be  divided  as  their  feeding  demands, 
50  to  60  in  a  pen.  The  shepherd  can  pass  from 
pen  to  pen  through  the  boxes  shown  on  the  end 
of  the  long  mangers. 

BARN  WITH  GLASS-COVERED  SHED. 

This  sheep  barn  for  100  ewes  is  distinctly  a 
sheep  barn ;  there  is  no  room  in  the  basement  for 
any  other  stock,  while  the  floor  above  is  all  de- 
voted to  the  storage  of  hay.    Grain  may  be  stored 


In  explanation  of  the  floor  plan  {Fig  337) 
H  shows  hay-  racks,  which  are  also  so  constructed 
that  grain  is  fed  in  them  at  will;  PP  are  posts 
supporting  the  barn ;  C  shows  the  chutes  4' 
square  down  which  hay  is  thrown ;  DD  are  doors ; 
WW  are  water  troughs ;  GG  the  troughs  or  self- 
feeders  for  lambs.  The  lambs  gain  access  to 
this  shed  by  means  of  a  creep  and  have  it  to 
their  sole  use  unless  it  is  desirable  to  put  a  few 
old  sheep  there  so  that  they  will  have  a  better 
chance. 

The  elevation  {Fig.  336)  shows  a  type  of 
joist  frame  with  open  center  for  taking  hay  up 
from  the  outside.  It  is  16'  to  the  square,  with 
half-pitch  roof  and  holds  ample  forage  for  the 
100  ewes  and  their  lambs.  For  cheapness,  con 
venience,  good  ventilation,  comfort  to  the  sheep 
and  general  all-around  practicability  this  barn 
is  admirable.  With  the  upper  doors  raised  and 
the  wind  circulating  through,  it  is  cool  in  sum- 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


187 


FIG.    336.     BARN    WITH    GLASS-COVERED    SHED     (END    SECTION). 


J^i«^-4   Cortied  SUof^ 


FIG.    337.      BARN    WITH    GLASS-COVERED    SHED     (ARRANGEMENT). 


188 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


nier;  with  the  doors  lowered  it  is  a  warm  win- 
ter barn  and  with  the  ventilation  that  comes 
from  the  hay  chutes  there  is  never  any  danger 
ot'  too  much  closeness  in  it. 

INTERIOR  OF  A  SHEEP  BARN. 

The  sheep  barn  in  which  the  arrangement  of 
hay-racks  is  shown  (Fig.  338)  is  34'  x  50'.  In 
Fig.  338  H  stands  between  the  posts  dividing 


The  doors  are  hung  by  common  strap  hinges, 
12"  or  16"  size,  and  are  held  open  by  two  %" 
ropes  fastened  up  about  10'  and  with  rings  in 
them  that  catch  in  spikes  driven  in  lower  edge 
of  doors.  A  good  way  is  to  use  small  wire  rope, 
as  the  weather  will  not  affect  it.  There  may 
easily  be  devised  other  convenient  devices  for 
raising  the  doors. 

C  is  the  hay  chute,  and  through  it  by  means 
of  a  ladder  the  mow  is  reached.     W  is  either  a 


a 


w 


v/ 


FIG.     338.      INTERIOR     OF    A     SHEEP    BARN. 


the  barn  into  four  compartments.  Each  rack  is 
separate  from  the  building  and  may  be  removed 
or  turned  around  across  the  alleys  if  desired. 
At  each  end  of  alley  is  a  door  of  full  width  to 
admit  of  a  team  passing  through  for  convenience 
of  cleaning  out  manure  and  also  to  allow  of  per- 
fect ventilation.  These  doors  should  be  in  halves, 
divided  horizontally,  the  lower  half  swinging, 
the  upper  half  raising  on  hinges  affixed  to  its 
upper  edges.  This  confines  the  sheep  while  al- 
lowing free  circulation  of  air. 


hay-rack  or  water-trough,  as  thought  best. 
If  a  trough  it  is  not  so  wide.  It  may  be  sup- 
plied either  by  a  hydrant  or  float-valve.  It  is 
better  to  have  water  in  the  yard  on  the  south 
side  of  the  barn,  there  being  comparatively  few 
days  when  it  is  so  cold  that  the  sheep  would  not 
prefer  to  drink  there. 

To  give  access  to  the  various  alleyways  the 
arrangement  shown  at  P  and  R  is  very  satis- 
factory. It  consist  of  an  extra  post  in  the 
ground  about  2'  from  the  barn.     To  this  post 


SHEEP  BARXS  AXD  SHEDS. 


189 


the  doors  latch  when  desired,  allowing  man  or 
sheep  to  pass  from  one  alley  to  tlie  other.  This 
is  used  during  mild  weather  when  the  sheep  are 
not  desired  separated  into  flocks.  One  such  ar- 
rangement is  to  be  put  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  barn. 


FIG.     C39.        IXTERIOR    OF    A    SHEEP    BARN      (SECTION). 

There  may  also  be  gates  through  the  hay- 
racks but  that  is  a  waste  of  rack  space.  Hay 
is  taken  from  either  side  of  the  chute,  so  that 
all  racks  are  filled  without  traveling  across  the 
line  of  the  haj^-racks.  The  arrangement  of 
doors  at  P  allows  of  the  sheep  being  assorted 
while  passing  through,  the  operator  standing 
at  the  door  and  by  opening  or  closing  it  turn- 
ing the  sheep  into  yard  or  into  the  adjacent 
alley. 


Fig.  339  shows  a  cross-section  of  one  alley 
Avith  section  of  the  hay-racks  adjusted  to  re- 
ceive the  hay.  These  racks  are  used  for  either 
hay  or  grain  and  when  grain  is  to  be  put  in  the 
hinged  sides  are  turned  over,  making  a  square 
box  open  at  the  top  into  which  the  ewes  cannot 
see.  The  grain  is  then  put  in  and  all  filled, 
the  sides  are  turned  back  as  shown  and  at  once 
the  ewes  begin  eating  at  nearly  the  same  time. 
It  may  also  be  desirable  to  provide  a  few  self- 
feeders  for  the  ewes  suckling  their  lambs.  J., 
Fig.  339,  represents  a  meal  bin  which  may  ex- 
tend along  a  good  part  of  each  side.  It  is  filled 
at  D  from  outside  (or  inside  if  preferred)  and 
the  meal  is  drawn  out  at  B.  The  meals  should 
be  mixed  before  being  put  into  this  bin. 

A  s:mall  sheep  barn. 

The  plan  and  elevation  {Figs.  310  and  341) 
are  of  Joseph  E.  Wing's  designing  and  of  the 
barn  he  says :  "For  the  average  farm  it  is  nearly 
an  ideal  sheep  house.  It  may  be  built  of  any 
length  and  may  inclose  two  or  three  sides  of  a 
yard.  Being  narrow  it  is  readily  ventilated  and 
is  easily  divided  to  accommodate  the  breeding 
flock.  There  is  no  waste  material  in  the  frame 
and  no  encumbering  posts.  The  height  to  plate 
is  16',  the  width  20';  the  width  without  central 
posts  makes  necessary  the  use  of  the  2"  x  16" 
joist-bearers  and  the  long  supporting  braces. 
Hayracks  are  put  in  anj^vhere  but  should  be  of 
such  length  that  two  of  them  turned  crossways 
will  make  a  division  in  the  room.     The  doors 


FIG.     340,       SMALL     SHEEP    BARN      (FRAMEWORK). 


190 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


should  permit  driving  through  lengthways  and 
crossways.  The  bents  may  be  12'  or  14'' apart, 
better  12',  so  as  not  too  heavily  to  burden  the 
joist-bearers. ' ' 


J           ,1         1      ■- 

1  q 

SHEEP  BARN 
GROUND  PLAN  20X36 

]      1                           1      1    HAY  RACKS   |                                 |      p 

FIG.    341.       SMALL.    SHEEP    BARN     (GROUND    PLAN). 

BARN  FOR  FEEDING  SHEEP. 

It  was  the  idea  of  a  feeder  in  Illinois  to  have 
a  barn  to  hold  500  sheep  with  four  pens  of  125 
each  and  an  extra  pen  in  which  grain  would  be 
fed,  all  under  cover.  This  building  was  designed 
for  him  and  is  made  up  of  five  squares,  each  40' 


J 

a         J 

L 

9 

o           a 

c 

1 

D               D 

c 

'    ir   " 

14      " 

14 

UUAIhU 

'  I 

S 

1 

D 

a 

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O  POSTS  0 

D 

D 

a 

c 

S 

SATE 

GATE 

1 

D 

0 

3 

O               D 

c 

O 

□ 

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s 

r> 

J. 

4a 

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D               □ 

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I 

FIG.     342.       BARN    FOR    FEEDING    SHEEP. 

X  40'.  (See  Fig.  342.)  The  central  square  is 
for  feeding  and  each  flock  takes  its  turn  at  the 
troughs.  While  the  sheep  eat  grain,  hay  is  placed 
in  their  quarters,  to  which  they  return.  The 
building  is  of  joist  construction  with  curb  roof. 
The  middle  part  contains  large  cribs  and  bins  to 
which  grain  is  elevated  by  horse-power.  The 
upper  story  is  lighted  from  the  roof. 


A  LAMB  FEEDING  SHED. 

A  cheap  and  practical  shed  for  feeding  about 
400  lambs  is  thus  described : 

Fig.  343  shows  an  elevation  of  the  frame.  The 
rear  is  6'  high,  the  front  24',  and  the  width  40'. 
A  portion  of  the  higher  part  is  floored  to  hold 
hay.  All  of  two  bents  may  be  floored  if  desired. 
The  frame  should  be  of  the  simplest,  either  6" 
X  6"  posts  with  joist-construction  plates  and  tier 
or  all  of  joist  construction.  The  plates  should  be 
2"  X  10";  the  roof  should  be  of  shingles,  which 
should  be   nailed  with   either   galvanized   wire 


FIG.    344.       LAMB    FEEDING    SHED    (FLOOR    PLAN>, 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


191 


nails  or  cut  nails.     Common  wire  nails  do  not 
last  well. 

Fig.  343  shows  the  front  elevation  of  the 
shed.  The  doors  turn  to  the  south  and  each 
bent  has  its  large  half-door.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  provide  doors  to  the  space  above  the  half- 
doors.      In   feeding   lambs   these   spaces   would 


FIG.    345. 


r«e^  KucvA'tMii 

LAMB    FEEDING    SHED     (ELEVATION). 


not  need  to  be  closed  on  the  south  side  often 
enough  in  a  season  to  make  it  worth  providing 
them.  If  they  are  provided  with  doors  they 
should  be  hinged  at  the  upper  edge  so  as  to  open 
upwardly. 

The  length  of  this  building  is  60'.  The  bents 
are  spaced  12'  from  center  to  center.  Hay  is 
put  in  through  the  upper  windows.  A  track 
could  be  attached  to  the  rafters  and  hay  taken 
in  by  carrier  at  the  end. 

The  floor-plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  344.  The 
racks  are  not  stationary.  Doors  are  provided 
at  the  middle  of  each  end  so  that  a  team  may 
pass  through  when  cleaning  out  manure.  The 
racks  may  be  set  aside  from  the  middle  bents 
during  this  process.  Water  will  flow  through  all 
the  troughs  or  be  kept  at  a  level  by  means  of 
float-valves. 

A  la:\ibing  barn  for  the  south. 

The  lambing  barn  illustrated  in  Figs.  346,  347 
and  348  has  a  joist  frame,  but  has  no  interior 
posts,  the  width  being  but  20'  and  the  joist- 
bearers  running  crossways  of  the  frame  and 
made  of  three  pieces  of  2"  x  16"  stuff  and  further 
supported  by  braces  above  and  below.  The  upper 
brace  passes  between  twu  of  these  joist-bearers 
and  also  between  the  two  pieces  of  2"  x  8" 
(see  Fig.  347)  that  compose  the  posts  which  sus- 
tain a  good  deal  of  weight,  leaving  the  joist- 


bearers  only  10'  of  unsupported  span.  The  floor 
joists  should  be  let  in  between  these  joist-bearers ; 
that  is,  cut  just  long  enough  to  slip  down  and 
spike  fast  at  the  ends,  so  there  will  be  no 
waste  of  space  as  there  would  be  by  putting 


LAMBING     SHED    FOR    THE     SOUTH     (FRAMEWORK). 


FIG.     346.        LAMBING    BARN    FOR    THE    SOUTH     (ELEVATION). 


FIG.     348.        LAMBING     SHED     FOR     THE     SOUTH      (FLOOR). 

them  on  top.     There  is  no  great  weights  to  sus- 
tain. 

The  nail  girts  are  simple  2"  x  4"s  or  2"  x  6"s 
spiked  on.  A  track  runs  the  length  of  the  barn 
under  the  peak.  The  building  is  three  parts  of 
a  hollow  square,  enclosing  a  court  open  to  the 


192 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


sky  60'  X  80'  {Fig.  348).  In  this  will  be  a  tank, 
preferably  of  cement,  into  which  the  roof  water 
is  led  and  maybe  a  spring  made  to  pour  through 
a  pipe.  Of  course  the  open  side  is  to  the  south. 
On  two  sides  are  many  small  4'  x  4'  pens,  in 
which  ewes  may  be  confined  at  lambing  time^ 
these  may  be  stationary  or  movable.  Simple 
panels  4'  long,  two  hinged  together  and  pro- 
vided with  hooks  so  as  to  be  put  together  as 
nailed,  is  an  admirable  arrangement,  as  it  gives 
all  the  space  to  the  flock  except  when  pens  are 
needed.  It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  many 
pens  divided  off  by  the  feed-racks,  each  open- 
ing by  a  wide  door  to  the  yard,  so  that  one  can 


forage  for  a  far  northern  location,  but  could  be 
built  wider  and  taller. 

A  GOOD  LAMBING  SHED. 

While  there  is  no  doubt  that  lambs  born  in 
winter  are  generally  worth  more  than  those 
])orn  later  there  is  more  or  less  risk  in  having 
tliem  appear  in  the  ordinary  ewe  sheds.  Good 
management,  therefore,  dictates  that  there 
sliould  be  provided  a  small  building  apart  from 
the  regular  sheep  barn  where  the  most  forward 
ewes  may  be  drafted  and  where  they  may  go 
through  the  ordeal  of  delivery  with  more  at- 


ra 


Mi 


rRONT   ELEVATION    OF   SHEEP    HOSPITAL 


SIOC    CLCVATION 


o 


r-ir-i 
I    II 
I    'I 
I    'I 

I    li 


'   I    I 

I     '>     I  11X11 


11 


I       ARTtrCIAL    HEAT, 
I  ItXIX 


SHCPHCKOS 

ROOM 
IIXU 


^1^1 


/    V    _.  .\ 


FLOOR  PLAN  OF  SHCtP  HOSPITAL 
FIG.    349.      A    GOOD    LAMBIXG    SHED     (ELEVATIONS    AND    FLOOR    PLAN). 


separate  the  ewes  according  to  his  needs,  or, 
turning  the  feed-racks  about,  throw  two  or  all 
of  them  together. 

On  one  side  is  the  creep  for  the  winter  lambs. 
The  doors  are  all  on  the  court  side  and  are 
double,  one  opening  as  common  doors  and  gates 
do,  the  other  swinging  up  as  an  awning  swings, 
to  let  in  a  little  air  or  a  great  deal  of  the  sun, 
as  desired.  The  court  should  be  cemented  or 
paved  so  there  will  never  be  mud,  and  the  gate 
to  the  court  should  swing  either  way  so  sheep 
can  never  crowd  it  shut  and  injure  themselves. 
There  should  be  spouting  along  the  court  side 
of  the  building  to  carry  away  the  drip.  This 
building  is  nearly  ideal  for  a  southern  situa- 
tion where  the  ewes  get  a  considerable  part  of 
their  feed  in  the  fields  yet  require  some  forage, 
grain   and   shelter.      It   does  not   hold   enough 


tention  and  greater  quiet  than  can  be  had  in 
the  usual  (|uarters.  There  are  times  too  when 
artificial  heat  is  essential. 

The  lambing-shed  illustrated  in  Fig.  349  is 
light,  warm  and  easily  ventilated;  the  feed  is 
above  where  enough  hay  is  easily  stored  to  carry 
the  stock  below  through  the  season,  the  access  is 
convenient  and  the  manure  easily  removed. 
Furthermore,  it  is  cheaply  built.  Reference  to 
the  floor  plan  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  pens. 
The  water  is  in  lialf -barrels,  all  on  the  same 
level,  connected  by  means  of  iron  pipe  that  is 
buried  in  the  ground  and  enters  the  tubs  at 
the  bottom.  This  arrangement  insures  against 
freezing  and  each  tub  Avill  have  in  it  the  same 
amount  of  water,  A  float-valve  in  the  supply 
pipe  will  regulate  the  water  in  each. 

The  gates  to  the  pens  are  so  arranged  that 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND   SHEDS. 


193 


when  they  open  they  hook  across  the  passage, 
thus  closing  it  and  making  it  easy  to  direct 
sheep  to  any  desired  pen.  The  feed-racks  are 
so  arranged  that  lambs  can  not  creep  into  or 
through  them.  At  one  end  there  is  a  room 
finished  off  nicely  for  the  shepherd.  The  pen 
next  to  the  shepherd's  room  is  completely  sep- 
arated from  the  other  pens  by  a  tight  parti- 
tion reaching  to  the  ceiling,  the  other  pens  being 
merely  separated  by  the  feed-racks.  Between 
tlie  closed  pen  and  the  shepherd's  room  there 
is  a  sliding  door  next  the  stove.  One  side  of 
the  door  is  covered  w4th  zinc.  There  also  is  a 
sliding  lath  gate,  so  that  by  opening  the  -door 
and  closing  the  gate  the  heat  from  the  stove 
will  enter  the  pen.  Entrance  to  this  pen  is  also 
secured  by  opening  the  little  gate  by  the  stove. 

Plenty  of  glass  is  provided  so  that  the  sun 
may  come  in,  and  at  the  rear  of  each  pen  is  a 
door  out  of  which  the  manure  is  thrown.  Hay 
is  pitched  into  the  loft  by  hand  through  the 
front  windows,  it  not  being  practicable  to  use 
machinery  in  so  small  a  building. 

As  this  building  should  be  free  from  draughts 
it  is  well  to  build  of  good  matched  siding  with 
paper  under  it  or  of  rough  siding  and  plaster 
outside  the  lower  story.  The  windows  must  face 
the  south  or  southeast  and  it  may  be  built  any 
desired  length,  although  if  intended  to  be  very 


long  part  of  it  may  well  be  turned  in  the  form 
of  an  L.  As  fast  as  the  lambs  grow  strong 
and  able  to  endure  the  cold  they  are  drafted 
out. 

THORNDALE  SHEEP  BARN. 

The  sheep  barn  at  Thorndale,  shown  in  Figs. 
350  and  351,  is  a  side  hill  barn  200'  x  50'  with 
an  L  on  the  southeast  corner  28'  x  42',  and  an 
extension  30'  x  30'  on  the  north  side  {Fig.  351). 
The  basement  is  extended  for  breeding  ewes, 
the  southwest  extension  for  the  rams  and  shep- 
herd's room  and  to  break  the  northwest  winds 
from  the  yards.  The  extension  on  the  north  side 
is  for  a  root  cellar  in  the  basement  and  grain 
room  overhead.  The  building  is  constructed  on 
the  cantilever  principle,  thoroughly  braced  and 
bolted  with  %"  iron  bolts.  The  advantages  of 
this  construction  are  that  no  posts  are  required 
above  basement,  which  leaves  a  practically  clear 
mow  the  entire  length  of  the  building.  Strength 
and  cheapness  are  also  claimed  but  the  latter 
did  not  receive  much  consideration.  The  foun- 
dation walls  are  2'  3"  thick  and  14'  high  above 
ground,  built  of  faced  stone  laid  in  cement  and 
plastered  on  the  outside  with  a  mixture  of  pitch 
and  tar.  The  lumber  used  is  all  of  first  quality 
of  the  following  dimensions:    Sills,  girts,  posts, 


665 


o'-i^j/ 


ROOT  CELLAR 
30^40' 


6ATE 


GATC 


S 


GATE 


WATER 


RAMS 


RAMS 


STAIRS 


333 


GATE 


GATE 


333 


xn 


WATER 


RAMS 


RAMS 


OOOR 


UOOR 


RAMS 


YARD 


YARD 


DOOR 
28' 


333 


-333 


n. 


<ATER 


OOOR 


OOOR 


YARD 


YARD 


Dooa 


YARD 


PIG.     3-50.      THORNDALE     SHEEP    BARN      (FLOOR     PLAN). 


194 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.      ool.       THOKNDALE     SHEEP     BARN      (ELEVATION). 


levers  and  main  rafters,  8"  x  12";  flooring,  2" 
X  5"  matched;  roof  sealed  tight  and  shingled 
with  California  red  cedar  shingles.  The  base- 
ment is  14'  high  and  has  an  abundance  of  win- 
dows. The  lower  panes  of  glass,  which  are  sta- 
tionary, are  30"  x  15";  the  upper  glass  is  15"  x 
15",  set  in  sash  and  operated  by  the  Hitchings 
system  of  ventilation,  which  is  commonly  used 
in  greenhouses.  It  is  operated  by  one  crank 
in  the  center  of  the  building.  By  this  means 
we  get  equal  ventilation  and  save  time  by  open- 
ing and  shutting  all  the  windows  from  central 
point  and  by  one  movement.  The  doors  are 
7I/2'  X  10',  hung  by  a  steel  band  running  over 
a  pulley  and  run  up  and  down.  As  the  doors 
weigh  but  5  pounds  more  than  the  door  weights, 
they  run  very  easily  and  work  very  satisfactory. 
Slat  doors  are  hung  in  the  same  way  just  in- 


side of  main  door.  There  is  9'  between  the 
center  braces,  with  an  iron  bar  run  through, 
which  can  be  easily  pulled  out,  the  idea  being 
to  take  it  out  when  the  feed  is  being  put  in, 
and  the  ewes  and  lambs  are  out  in  the  yards, 
to  allow  the  lambs  the  first  opportunity  of  hav- 
ing the  first  pick  of  the  feed.  The  doorways 
are  rounded  with  narrow  matched  stuff  so  that 
the  ewes  cannot  get  jammed  running  in  or  out. 
The  posts  in  basement  are  round  14"  in  diame 
ter.  The  corners  of  all  racks  are  planed  off; 
in  fact,  there  is  not  a  sharp  corner  in  the  base- 
ment where  a  ewe  can  rub  her  fleece  loose.  The 
space  is  divided  in  flve  pens.  The  silo  in  north- 
west corner  is  10'  x  12'  x  30',  thoroughly  braced 
and  secured.  Each  pen  has  access  to  water  and 
a  yard.  The  L  is  divided  into  a  shepherd's  room 
and  five  pens  in  which  we  keep  the  stock  rams. 


FIG.     352.      OHIO     SHEEP    FEEDING    BARN     (ELEVATION). 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


195 


COW  STALL 

-J 

HORSE  STALL 

HORSE  STALL 

PONrSTALU    ™m 

pMOW 

24 

16- , 


zzzs 


w 


^^^ 


FEED  30  HEAD 


-VVATER  , 


UKAIN  TROUGH  | 


FEED  WAY 


-*6'-' 


GRAIN 
ROOM 


n     I    GRAIN  TROUGH 

•VATER 


9  SUOING  DOOR 


GRAIN  TROUGH 


10 

777 


u  ; 

WATER     -fv, 


SS 


I77Z77 


M    ^^ 


SS 


FEED  40  HEAD 


u 


I       GRAIN  T"Rbu6H 


.16'-  — X- 3i.gl 

FIG.     353.      OHIO    SHEEP    FEEDING    BARX     (OROUXD    PLAN). 


-16-4- 


The  room  is  perfectly  plain  and  heated  by  a 
stove. 

OHIO  SHEEP  FEEDING  BARN. 

Plans  shown  in  Figs.  352,  353  and  354  illus- 
trate a  very  complete  sheep  feeding  barn.  The 
plan  of  the  ground  floor  explains  itself.  The 
hay   racks   are   3'   high,   30"   wide,   are   slatted 


Hay  is  taken  in  at  east  end  of  barn  and  three 
hay  chutes  from  the  mow  carry  the  hay  to  the 
lambing  room,  horses  and  feedway. 

A  SHEEP  BARN  FOR  150  EWES. 

A  sheep  barn  for  150  ewes,  with  room  to  hold 
40  tons  of  hay  in  the  loft,  is  thus  described  : '  *  The 
ewe  needs  about  12  square  feet  of  floor  space, 
at  least  that  much,  and  may  be  better  off  Avith 
more  room  after  her  lambs  come.  The  barn  for 
500  ewes  may  therefore  be  32'  x  60',  with  the 
sets  of  posts  12'  apart  from  centers.  (See  Fig. 
356.)  This  distance  permits  the  placing  of  feed- 
racks  between  the  posts  and  thus  divisions  may 
be  made,  and  there  is  room  left  to  drive  through 


FIG.     354.       OHIO     SHEEP    FEEDING    BARN     (HAT    RACK). 

on  both  sides  and  hinged  at  bottom.  (See  Fig. 
354.)  There  is  a  500-bushel  grain  bin  in  the 
mow  with  spout  running  down  into  grain  room. 


ONE  BENT  OF  JOIST  FRAME 
FOR  SHEEP  BARN 


^ 


32' 

FIG.     355.       SHEEP    BARN    FOR     150     EWES     (FRAMEWORK). 


196 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


transversely  to  remove  manure.  The  two  sides 
may  be  all  doors,  to  let  the  teams  pass  through; 
hinges  cost  little.  Or  the  doors  may  be  omitted 
on  the  sides,  glass  substituted  on  the  south,  and 
driveways  be  made  through  the  building  the  long 
way.  There  is  more  head  room  to  drive  the 
short  way,  however.  If  winter  lambs  are  to  be 
grown  there  must  be  one  section  made  tight  and 
warm,  and  the  use  of  artificial  heat  there  will 
be  permissible,  and  probably  profitable.  Put  it 
in  the  sliepherd's  room  in  a  corner  and  let  the 
fire  heat  pass  through  a  slatted  partition  to  the 
lambing  room  next  to  it.  Hay  will  be  thrown 
down  convenient  chutes  into  large  racks  and 
thence  distributed.    Grain  raav  be  binned  above 


32' 


0£:  u 


a:  '-' 
o 

C3  n 


WARW 

ROOM 


SHEPHERDS  "  ^ 
ROOM 


-m- 


POST 


POST 


o 

CO 


CD 
C3   „ 


OCT 
CD 


RACK 


RACK 


RACK 


lEar 


POSm 


o 
o 


M  or 
o 

C3 

ri    C3 


U  CC 

o 
o 

„   CD 


im: 


POST 


BARN  FOR  150  EWES 

FIG.    356.       SHEEP   BARN    FOR    150    EWES    (FLOOR). 


the  shepherd's  room  and  spouted  down.  Water 
may  be  in  a  concrete  trough  between  the  middle 
posts,  or  drawn  from  a  faucet  and  carried  to 
tubs,  or  provided  by  hydrants  flowing  directly 
into  tubs  or  troughs.  Abundant  light  should  be 
provided,  and  chance  for  ample  ventilation ;  the 
doors  on  the  south  side  may  be  in  halves,   di- 


vided horizontally  and  the  lower  naif  opening 
as  a  common  farm  gate  swings,  the  upper  half 
raising  like  a  box  lid  or  an  awning.  This  lifted 
door  permits  the  air  to  enter  and  pretty  well 
keeps  out  the  storm. ' ' 

A  BARN  FOR  LAMB  RAISING. 

An  Illinois  farmer  who  keeps  about  70  ewes 
thus  describes  the  barn  for  lambs  shown  in  Fig. 
357 : 

"Our  barn  is  a  convenient  one  and  is  large 
enough  for  about   125   ewes.     "When  the   ewes 


ROLLtNG  DOOR 50'  1.      )  DOOR 

'"^  I         FEED  RACK  I 


EWES  ANB  LAMBS 


Fig.    A. 


FIG.     357.       BARN     FOR     LAMB    RAISING     (FLOOR). 

begin  to  lamb  we  put  the  first  ewe  in  Pen  1. 
Then  when  the  second  lambs  we  put  her  in  Pen 
1,  putting  No.  1  in  Pen  2,  and  so  on  until  all  the 
pens  are  full.  Then  we  begin  to  remove  them 
one  at  a  time  to  the  large  pen  for  ewes  and 
lambs.  When  the  lambs  are  about  two  weeks  old 
they  will  begin  to  eat  some  small  grain.  A  pen 
for  this  purpose  has  been  made  (Fig.  357)  and 
is  provided  with  small  grain  boxes  on  two  sides. 
Tlie  ends  are  made  of  portable  gates.  A  small 
creep  hole  will  be  noticed  in  the  gate  between  the 
lamb  pen  and  the  ewes  and  lambs  through  which 
the  lambs  can  pass.  These  gates  may  be  re- 
moved the  next  fall  and  again  give  the  flock 
the  entire  barn.  The  gates  shown  can  be  set 
back  to  any  desired  place  and  thereby  enlarge  the 
pens  and  rack  room,  as  more  of  them  have  lambs. 
The  gates  in  the  small  pens  can  be  made  so 
that  by  opening  them  back  to  the  right  or  left 
it  will  make  an  alley  through  which  any  sheep 
can  be  driven  outside;  the  others  are  closed  up 
in  their  pens.  The  hay  and  feed  racks  are  of 
a  good  type,  and  those  placed  around  the  wall 
can  be  easily  filled  by  leaving  a  space  between 
the  loft  floor  and  the  wall.  Underneath  the 
slanting  board  in  Fig.  A  is  a  grain  trough  in 
which  corn,  oats  or  other  grains  can  be  fed. 
There  is  also  a  feedway  that  has  this  type  of 
hay  and  grain  rack  on  either  side.     By  easing 


SHEEP  BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


197 


tight  where  the  slanting  line  is  in  Fig.  A  it 
prevents  the  seeds  and  trash  from  getting  in  the 
wool  when  tlirowing  down  hay. ' ' 


BARN  FOR  COWS  AND  SHEEP. 


and 


A  Wisconsin  farmer  thus  describes  a  cow 
sheep  barn  that  he  built : 

''5ly  barn  for  cows  and  sheep  is  40'  x  80'  and 
24'  high,  with  a  driveway  in  the  center.  Cows 
are  in  one  end  and  sheep  in  the  other.     I  would 


visable  to  cover  this  kind  of  a  building  with  one 
of  the  prepared  roofings'?  I  think  the  best  shin- 
gles will  cost  about  $4.50  per  thousand." 

Commenting  on  the  plan,  and  answering  the 
questions,  ^Ir.  Wing  writes :  "I  should  entirely 
isolate  the  cow  stable  from  the  sheep  barn  by  a 
tight  partition,  since  the  cows  cannot  endure  the 
amount  of  air  that  the  sheep  will  need.  I  should 
assuredly  adopt  the  King  system  of  ventilation 
for  dairy  cows  in  as  cold  a  country  as  Wiscon- 
sin.    The  plan  of  stalls  and  cross-section  {Fig. 


^0 


- 

~ 

0> 

1 

1 

STALLS 

3   e" 

^ 

MAN 

SIRS 

"•                                                   WALn 

FIG.     358.      BARN    FOR    COWS     AND     SHEEP      (FLOOR    ARRAXGEMENT)  . 


like  two  rows  of  cows  crosswise  of  the  barn, 
heads  out.  How  much  room  is  required  for  them 
with  room  for  the  manure  spreader  to  pass  be- 
tween them?  Our  builder  thinks  we  will  get 
enough  ventilation  from  hay  mow  in  the  end  and 
barn  floor  on  the  other  side.     Would  it  be  ad- 


358)  will  explain  the  construction  very  clearly. 
If  iron  pipe  partitions  are  used  between  the  cows 
and  stanchions  of  steel  these  must  be  put  in  be- 
fore the  concrete  floor  is  laid.  Two  methods  of 
making  gutters  are  indicated.  We  prefer  the 
simple  slope  to  the  actual  trench. ' ' 


POULTRY  HOUSES. 


Too  often  the  location  of  poultry  houses  is 
thought  to  be  of  minor  importance  and  conse- 
quently is  given  less  consideration  than  any 
other  farm  building.  Fre(iuently  the  other  build- 
ings are  located  first  and  the  poultry  house  then 
placed  on  the  most  convenient  space,  when  it 
should  have  received  consideration  before  the 
larger  buildings  were  all  located. 

In  caring  for  the  various  classes  of  live  stock 
the  question  of  labor  is  always  an  important 
item,  and  the  class  that  requires  the  closest  at- 
tention to  petty  details  as  a  rule  requires  the 
greatest  amount  of  labor.  As  poultry-keeping 
is  wholly  a  business  of  details  the  economy  of 
labor  in  performing  the  necessary  work  is  of 
great  importance.  Buildings  not  conveniently 
located  and  arranged  become  expensive  on  ac- 
count of  unnecessary  labor. 

As  it  is  necessary  to  visit  poultry  houses  sev- 
eral times  each  day  in  the  year  convenience  is 
of  more  importance  than  in  case  of  almost  any 
other  farm  building.  The  operations  must  be 
performed  frequently,  so  that  any  little  incon- 
venience in  the  arrangements  of  the  buildings 
will  cause  not  only  extra  expense  in  the  care 
but  in  many  cases  a  greater  or  less  neglect  of 
work  that  should  be  done  carefully  each  day. 

Poultr.y  houses  are  likely  to  be  more  or  less 
infested  with  rats  and  mice  unless  some  means 
are  provided  to  exclude  them,  and  this  should 
1)6  taken  into  account  in  selecting  a  location.  It 
is  generally  best  to  locate  the  poultry  house  at 
some  distance  from  other  farm  buildings,  es- 
pecially if  grain  is  kept  in  the  latter.  Con- 
venience of  access  and  freedom  from  vermin 
are  two  desirable  points  to  be  secured,  and  they 
depend  largely  on  the  location.  Everything 
considered  it  is  best  to  isolate  the  house. 

A  dry,  porous  soil  is  always  to  be  preferred 
as  a  site  for  buildings  and  yards.  Cleanliness 
and  freedom  from  moisture  must  be  secured  if 
the  greatest  success  is  to  be  attained.  Without 
doubt  filth  and  moisture  are  the  causes,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  of  the  majority  of  poultry 
diseases,  and  form  the  stumbling  block  which 
brings  discouragement  and  failure  to  many  ama- 
teurs. It  must  not  be  inferred  that  poultry  can- 
not be  successfully  raised  and  profitably  kept  on 
heavy  soils,  for  abundant  proof  to  the  contrary 
is  readily  furnished  by  successful  poultrymen 
who  have  to  contend  with  this  kind  of  land.  The 
necessity  for  cleanliness,  however,  is  not  disputed 
hy  those  who  have  had  extended  experience  in 


caring  for  fowls,  particularly  the  less  hardy 
breeds.  That  an  open,  porous  soil  can  be  kept 
comparatively  clean  with  much  less  labor  than  a 
clay  soil  will  be  evident  to  those  who  are  at  all 
acquainted  with  the  habits  of  domesticated  fowls. 
When  the  fowls  are  confined  in  buildings  and 
yards  that  part  of  the  yard  nearest  the  buildings 
will  become  more  or  less  filthy  from  the  drop- 
pings and  continual  tramping  to  which  it  is 
subjected.  A  heavy  or  clayey  soil  not  only  re- 
tains all  of  the  manure  on  the  surface,  but  by 
retarding  percolation  at  times  of  frequent  show- 
ers aids  materially  in  giving  to  the  whole  sur- 
face a  complete  coating  of  filth.  If  a  knoll  or 
ridge  can  be  selected  where  natural  drainage  is 
perfect  the  ideal  condition  will  be  nearly  ap- 
proached. Where  natural  favorable  conditions 
as  to  drainage  do  not  exist  thorough  under-drain- 
age  will  go  a  long  way  toward  making  the  neces- 
sary amends  to  insure  success. 

The  material  to  be  used  in  the  construction 
and  the  manner  of  building  will  necessarily  be 
governed  largely  by  the  climatic  conditions.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  the  house  should 
provide  warm,  dry,  well  lighted  and  well  ven- 
tilated quarters  for  the  fowls.  In  order  to  meet 
these  requirements  it  will  be  necessary  to  pro- 
vide a  good  roof  with  side  walls  more  or  less 
impervious  to  moisture  and  cold,  suitable  ar- 
rangements for  lighting  and  ventilating  and 
some  means  for  excluding  the  moisture  from  be- 
neath. Where  permanent  buildings  are  to  be 
erected  some  provision  should  be  made  to  exclude 
rats  and  mice,  and  for  this  reason  if  for  no  other 
the  structure  should  be  placed  on  cement  walls 
with  foundation  below  the  frost  line.  Cheap, 
efficient  walls  may  be  made  of  small  field  stone 
in  the  following  manner:  Dig  trenches  for  the 
walls  below  the  frost  line;  drive  two  rows  of 
stakes  in  the  trenches,  one  row  at  each  side  of 
the  trench  and  board  inside  of  the  stakes.  The 
boards  simply  hold  the  stones  and  cement  in  place 
until  the  cement  hardens.  Rough  and  uneven 
boards  will  answer  every  purpose  except  for  the 
top  ones,  which  should  have  the  upper  edge 
straight  and  be  placed  level  to  determine  the  top 
of  the  wall.  Place  two  or  three  layers  of  stone 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  put  on  cement  mixed 
rather  thin  and  pound  down ;  repeat  this  opera- 
tion until  the  desired  height  is  obtained.  The 
top  of  the  wall  can  be  smoothed  off  with  a  trowel 
or  ditching  spade  and  left  until  the  cement  be- 
comes hard,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  the  build- 


198 


POULTRY  HOUSES. 


199 


ing.  The  boards  at  the  sides  may  be  removed  if 
desirable  at  any  time  after  the  cement  becomes 
hard. 

For  the  colder  latitudes  a  house  with  hollow 
or  double  side  walls  is  to  be  preferred  on  many 
accounts,  although  a  solid  wall  may  prove  quite 
satisfactory,  particularly  if  the  building  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  skilled  poultryman.  Imperfect 
buildings  and  appliances  when  under  the  man- 
agement of  skilled  and  experienced  men  are  not 
the  hindrances  that  they  would  be  to  the  ama- 
teur. Buildings  with  hollow  side  walls  are 
warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer,  with 
less  frost  in  severe  Aveather  and  less  resulting 
moisture  when  the  temperature  moderates  suf- 
ficiently to  melt  the  frost  from  the  walls  and 
roof  of  the  house. 

A  cheap  efficient  house  may  be  made  of  two 
thicknesses  of  rough  inch  lumber  for  the  side 
and  end  walls.  This  siding  should  be  put  on 
vertically,  with  good  quality  of  tarred  building 
paper  between.  In  constructing  a  building  of 
this  kind  it  is  usually  best  to  nail  on  the  inner 
layer  of  boards  first,  then  put  on  the  outside 
of  this  layer  the  building  paper  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  whole  surface  is  covered.  Where 
the  edges  of  the  paper  meet  a  liberal  lap  should 
be  given,  the  object  being  to  prevent  as  far  as 
possible  draughts  of  air  in  severe  weather.  Nail 
the  second  thickness  of  boards  on  the  building 
paper  so  as  to  break  joints  in  the  two  board- 
ings. In  selecting  lumber  for  siding  it  is  best 
to  choose  boards  of  a  uniform  width  to  facilitate 
the  breaking  of  joints. 

In  constructing  a  roof  for  a  house  in  the 
colder  latitudes  one  of  two  courses  must  be 
pursued:  either  to  ceil  the  inside  with  some  ma- 
terial to  exclude  draughts  or  to  place  the  roof 
boards  close  together  and  cover  thoroughly  with 
tarred  paper  before  shingling.  The  ordinary 
shingle  roof  is  too  open  for  windy  weather  when 
the  mercury  is  at  or  below  the  zero  mark.  The 
fowls  will  endure  severe  weather  without  suffer- 
ing from  frosted  combs  or  wattles  if  there  are 
no  draughts  of  air.  Hens  will  lay  well  during 
the  winter  months  if  the  houses  are  warm  enough 
so  that  the  single-comb  varieties  do  not  suffer 
from  frostbite.  Whenever  the  combs  or  wattles 
are  frozen  the  loss  in  decreased  egg  production 
cannot  be  other  than  serious. 

Fig.  359  represents  a  cheap  and  efficient 
method  of  building  a  poultry  house  with  a  hol- 
low side  wall.  The  sill  may  be  a  2"  x  6"  or  2" 
X  8 '  scantling,  laid  flat  on  the  wall  or  founda- 
tion ;  a  2"  X  2"  strip  is  nailed  at  the  outer  edge 
to  give  the  size  of  the  space  between  the  boards 
which  constitute  the  side  walls.  A  2"  x  3" 
scantling  set  edgewise  forms  the  plate  and  to  this 
the  boards  of  the  side  walls  are  nailed.     These 


boards  may  be  of  rough  lumber  if  economy 
in  building  is  desired.  If  so  the  inner  board 
should  be  nailed  on  first  and  covered  with  tarred 
building  paper  on  the  side  that  will  come  with- 
in the  hollow  wall  when  the  building  is  com- 
pleted. This  building  paper  is  to  be  held  in. 
place  with  laths  or  strips  of  thin  boards.  If  only 
small  nails  or  tacks  are  used  the  paper  will 
tear  around  the  nail  heads  when  damp  and  will 
not  stay  in  place. 

The  cracks  between  the  boards  of  the  outside 
boarding  may  be  covered  with  inexpensive  bat- 
tens if  they  are  nailed  at  frequent  intervals 
with  small  nails.  Ordinary  building  laths  will 
answer  this  purpose  admirably  and  will  last 
many  years,  although  they  are  not  so  durable 
as  heavier  and  more  expensive  strips.  The 
tarred  paper  on  the  inside  boarding  and  the 


Tea-  Paper 


n'^'-^w^']'^' 


FIG.    359.       HOLLOW    WALLS    AND    FOUXDATIOX. 

battens  on  the  outside  make  two  walls,  each  im- 
pervious to  wind,  with  an  air  space  between 
them. 

In  preparing  plans  for  a  building  one  of  the 
first  questions  to  be  decided  is  the  size  and  form 
of  the  house.  If  the  buildings  are  made  with 
the  corners  right  angles  there  is  no  form  so 
economical  as  a  square  building.  This  form 
will  inclose  more  square  feet  of  floor  space  for 
a  given  amount  of  lumber  than  any  other,  but 
for  some  reasons  a  square  building  is  not  so 
well  adapted  for  fowls  as  one  that  is  much 
longer  than  wide.  It  is  essential  to  have  the 
different  pens  or  divisions  in  the  house  so  ar- 


200 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ranged  that  each  one  will  receive  as  much  sun- 
light  as  possible,  and  to  secure  this  some  sacri- 
fice in  economy  of  building  must  be  made. 

]\lany  poultrymen  prefer  a  building,  one  story 
high  and  not  less  than  10'  nor  more  than  14' 
wide  and  as  long  as  circumstances  require.  In 
most  cases  a  building  30'  to  60'  long  meets  all 
recjuirements.  If  this  does  not  give  room  enough 
it  is  better  to  construct  other  buildings  than  ex- 
tend one  building  more  than  60'.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  each  pen  in  the  building  should 
have  a  separate  yard  or  run  and  that  a  pen 
should  not  be  made  to  accommodate  more  than 
50  fowls,  or  better  30  to  40. 

The  building  should  extend  nearly  east  and 
west  in  order  that  as  much  sunshine  as  possible 
may  be  admitted  through  windows  on  the  south 
side.  The  windows  should  not  be  large  nor 
more  than  one  to  every  8'  or  10'  in  length  for 
a  house  12'  wide,  and  about  17"  from  the  floor, 
or  at  such  height  that  as  much  sunshine  as  pos- 
sible will  be  thrown  on  the  floor.  The  size  and 
form  of  the  windows  will  determine  quite  largely 
their  location.  In  all  poultry  houses  in  cold 
latitudes  the  windows  should  be  placed  in  such 
position  that  they  will  give  the  most  sunlight 
on  the  floor  during  the  severe  winter  months. 
One  of  the  common  mistakes  is  in  putting  in  too 
many  windows.  While  a  building  that  admits 
plenty  of  sunlight  in  winter  time  is  desirable,  a 
cold  one  is  eipally  undesirable,  and  windows  are 
a  source  of  radiation  at  night  unless  shutters  or 
curtains  are  provided.  Sliding  windows  are  pre- 
ferred on  many  accounts.  They  can  be  partially 
opened  for  ventilation  on  warm  days.  The  base 
or  rail  on  which  the  window  slides  should  be 
made  of  several  pieces  fastened  an  inch  or  so 
apart,  through  which  openings  the  dirt  that  is 
sure  to  accumulate  in  poultry  houses  may  drop 
and  insure  free  movement  of  the  window. 

Some  means  of  ventilating  the  building 
should  be  provided.  A  ventilator  that  can  be 
opened  and  closed  at  the  will  of  the  attendant 
will  give  good  results  if  given  proper  attention, 
and  without  attention  no  ventilator  will  give  best 
results.  All  ventilators  that  are  in  continuous 
operation  either  give  too  much  ventilation  at 
night  or  too  little  during  the  warm  parts  of 
the  day.  Ventilators  are  not  needed  in  severe 
cold  weather,  but  during  the  first  warm  days  of 
early  spring  and  whenever  the  temperature  rises 
above  the  freezing  point  during  the  winter 
months  some  ventilation  should  be  provided. 
Houses  with  single  walls  will  become  quite  frosty 
on  the  inside  during  severe  weather,  which  will 
cause  considerable  dampness  whenever  the  tem- 
perature rises  sufficiently  to  thaw  out  all  the 
frost  of  the  side  walls  and  roof.  At  this  time 
a  ventilator  is  most  needed. 


A  ventilator  in  the  highest  part  of  the  roof 
that  can  be  closed  tightly  by  means  of  cords  or 
chains  answers  the  purpose  admirably  and  may 
be  constructed  with  little  expense.  The  ease 
and  convenience  of  operation  are  important 
points  and  should  not  be  neglected  when  the 
l)uilding  is  being  constructed.  It  is  a  simple 
matter  for  the  attendant  to  open  or  close  a  ven- 
tilator as  he  passes  through  the  house  if  the 


VENTILATION     CONSTRUCTION. 


appliances  for  operating  it  are  within  easy  reach. 
Fig.  360  represents  an  efficient  and  easily 
operated  ventilator. 

Perches  should  not  be  more  than  2i/^'  from 
the  floor  and  should  be  all  of  the  same  height. 
]\Iany  fowls  prefer  to  perch  as  far  above  the 
ground  as  possible  in  order  without  doubt  to  be 
more  secure  from  their  natural  enemies;  but 
when  fowls  are  protected  artificially  from  skunks, 
minks  and  foxes,  a  low  perch  is  just  as  safe  and 
a  great  deal  better  for  the  heavy-bodied  fowls. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  distance  given 
at  which  perches  should  be  placed  from  the  floor 
applies  to  all  breeds  of  fowls.  It  is  true  that 
some  of  the  Mediterranean  fowls  would  not  in 
any  way  be  injured  in  flying  to  and  from  the 
perches,  but  some  of  the  heavy  breeds  would  find 
it  almost  impossible  to  reach  high  perches  and 
would  sustain  positive  injuries  in  alighting  on 
the  floor  from  any  considerable  elevation.  Con- 
venient walks  or  ladders  can  be  constructed  which 
will  enable  the  large  fowls  to  approach  the 
perches  without  great  effort,  but  there  are  always 
times  when  even  the  most  clumsy  fowls  will  at- 
tempt to  fly  from  the  perch  to  the  floor  and 
come  down  with  a  heavy  thud,  which  is  often 
injurious.  And  furthermore  ladders  or  stairs  for 
the  easy  ascent  of  fowls  are  more  or  less  of  ft 


POULTRY  HOUSES. 


201 


nuisance  in  the  poultry  house.  The  ideal  in- 
terior arrangement  of  the  house  is  to  have  every- 
thing that  is  needed  in  as  simple  a  form  as  pos- 
sible and  not  to  complicate  the  arrangement  by 
any  unnecessary  apparatus.  The  fewer  and 
simpler  the  interior  arrangements  the  easier  the 
house  can  be  kept  clean  and  the  greater  the  floor 
space  available  for  the  fowls. 

Underneath  the  perches  should  always  be 
placed  a  smooth  platform  to  catch  the  droppings. 
This  is  necessary  for  two  reasons:  The  drop- 
pings are  valuable  for  fertilizing  purposes  and 
should  not  be  mixed  with  the  litter  on  the 
floor;  then,  too,  if  the  droppings  are  kept 
separate  and  in  a  convenient  place  to  remove 
it  is  much  easier  to  keep  the  house  clean  than 
when  they  are  allowed  to  become  more  or  less 
scattered  by  the  tramping  and  scratching  of 
fowls.  The  distance  of  the  platform  from  the 
perch  will  be  governed  somewliat  by  the  means 
employed  for  removing  the  droppings.  If  a 
broad  iron  shovel  with  a  tolerably  straight  handle 
is  used  the  space  between  the  platform  and 
perclies  need  not  be  more  than  6".  The  droppings 
should  be  removed  every  day. 

WARM  AND  DRY  POULTRY  HOUSES. 

Freedom  from  dampness  is  of  great  impor- 
tance and  the  matter  of  lighting  should  never 
be  forgotten,  for  on  these  two  things  depend 
success  in  poultry  keeping.  In  constructing  a 
poultry  house  great  care  should  be  taken  to  make 
it  wind-proof.  The  outer  walls  should  be  abso- 
lutely tight,  in  order  to  prevent  draughts  from 
entering  even  during  high  winds.  If  we  can 
prevent  the  circulation  of  air  currents  when  the 
doors  and  windows  are  closed  we  overcome  one 
great  obstacle  to  making  fowls  comfortable.  This 
means  that  doors  and  windows  should  be  well 
fitted  and  that  walls  should  be  covered  with  some 
material  which  makes  them  perfectly  tight. 

Poultrymen  began  by  putting  stoves  and  other 
methods  of  heating  in  their  poultry  houses.  This 
was  found  to  be  a  sad  failure,  for  hens  kept  in 
a  heated  house  were  invariably  falling  prey  to 
roup  and  other  catarrhal  diseases.  Then  double 
walls  of  various  kinds  were  tried  from  common 
lath  and  plaster  to  elaborately  constructed  walls 
with  positive  dead  air  spaces  between.  Gradually 
poultrymen  modified  the  walls  of  their  poultry 
houses  until  now  the  double  wall  is  almost  un- 
known in  some  communities,  and  is  exceedingly 
rare  in  a  poultry  house  where  only  practical 
value  is  sought. 

A  poultry  house  that  is  built  with  a  shed  roof 
has  sides  of  common  barn  lumber,  the  roof  being 
of  the  same  material.  This  house  faces  to  the 
south,  has  a  shed  roof  and  is  7i/o'  high  on  the 


highest  side,  the  lower  side  being  18"  lower.  The 
roof,  the  north  side  and  both  ends  are  covered 
with  a  good  quality  of  building  paper,  such  as 
is  made  for  outside  use.  The  whole  front  is 
simply  heavy  muslin,  commonly  called  sheeting. 
This  muslin  is  tacked  on  two  frames  which 
are  hinged  to  the  plate  at  the  top  so  they  can  be 
swung  inwardly  and  hooked  up  next  the  roof.  A 
wire  netting  screen  prevents  the  fowls  from  get- 
ting out  and  enemies  from  getting  in  when  the 
muslin  windows  or  sides  are  swung  up.  In  this 
house  chickens  are  kept  and  lay  regularly  all 
the  time,  although  the  temperature  may  be  down 
to  26°  below  zero  more  than  once.  The  owner 
says  he  put  curtain  front  perches  in,  but  found 
they  were  not  needed,  as  his  hens  seemed  per- 
fectly comfortable  without  them. 

The  curtain  front  for  perches  was  a  great  in- 
vention. One  man  says  he  has  kept  Brown 
Leghorn  hens,  which  are  supposed  to  be  par- 
ticularly susceptible  to  cold,  in  a  house  which 
was  not  even  paper-covered,  Avithout  any  of  them 
being  touclied  by  the  frost  of  a  very  hard  win- 
ter by  providing  curtain  front  perches  for  theni. 
Any  one  can  arrange  curtain  fronts  for  perches 
without  trouble.  The  curtains  are  merely  com- 
mon burlap  hung  from  the  roof  so  as  to  enclose 
the  perches  in  a  little  room.  The  curtains 
should  be  long  enough  to  touch  the  floor  all 
around  and  the  edges  of  the  burlap  should  be 
sewed  together  except  at  the  corners,  and  the 
corners  should  be  pinned  together  at  night.  This 
little  sleeping  room  surrounded  by  burlap  walls 
lets  the  air  through  without  allowing  draughts 
to  be  created,  and  at  the  same  time  retains  the 
animal  heat  from  the  bodies  of  the  hens  so  as 
to  maintain  a  perfectlj^  comfortable  temperature 
in  the  coldest  weather.  During  the  day  the  cur- 
tain may  be  fastened  to  the  roof.  The  hens  will 
soon  learn  to  crawl  out  under  the  bottom  in  the 
morning. 

Pligli  cold  winds  affect  fowls  more  than  does 
low  temperature.  If  the  air  is  still  do  not  hesitate 
to  turn  hens  out  any  day  when  the  temperature 
is  not  lower  than  ten  above  zero.  In  very  severe 
Aveather  keep  them  in  the  house,  often  for  several 
days,  giving  them  opportunity  to  get  exercise  by 
scratching  for  grain  in  a  deep  layer  of  straw 
on  the  floor.  In  the  cloth  front  house  the  ques- 
tion of  dampness  is  settled.  Such  a  house,  if 
built  in  a  dry  place,  never  becomes  damp.  Where 
glass  windows  are  used  and  the  house  is  tight 
there  will  be  some  dampness,  which  will  show  on 
the  AA^alls  as  frost  in  cold  weather. 

Various  systems  of  ventilation  have  been  de- 
vised to  overcome  dampness,  but  all  ventilators 
create  a  draught  if  they  ventilate.  A  good  plan 
is  to  open  the  windows  during  days  when  the 
sun  shines.     This  can  be  done  without  danger 


202 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


during  the  daytime,  and  an  hour  or  two  of  open 
windows  in  the  middle  of  the  day  will  dissipate 
any  dampness  that  arises  from  the  breathing  of 
the  fowls.  The  windows  should  be  opened  only 
two  or  three  inches,  just  enough  to  create  a  little 
current  through  the  house. 

Some  New  York  poultrymen,  who  must  con- 
tend with  much  cold  weather,  build  their  poultry 
houses  high  enough  to  put  in  a  ceiling,  leaving 
a  small  loft  overhead.  The  ceiling  is  made  of 
3"  boards  laid  about  1"  apart.  The  loft  is 
then  filled  with  straw.  This  allows  the  air  to 
circulate  in  such  a  manner  that  no  draught 
is  created  and  the  straw  absorbs  the  dampness 
very  perfectly.  One  such  house  has  double  walls 
with  4"  between  and  the  outside  is  made  of  lap 
siding  with  paper  inside  and  the  inside  with 
ceiling  lumber  lined  with  paper.  Such  a 
house  well  made  is  frost-proof  and  free  from 
dampness,  but  quite  costly. 

A  CONVENIENT  POULTRY  HOUSE. 

Fig.  361  shows  a  very  convenient  poultry 
house  that  is  28'  long  and  20'  wide  with  alley 
4'  wide  running  lengthwise  through  the  center. 
The  house  is  divided  into  eight  rooms,  four  on 
each  side  of  the  aisle,  leaving  a  space  7'  x  8' 
for  each  room.  The  6"  x  6"  sills  can  be  used 
laid  on  stone  or  blocks  set  in  the  ground.  Use 
4"  X  4"  for  up-and-down  studding  spiked  2Y> 
apart  on  top  of  the  sills.  Use  2"  x  6"  for  floor 
joists  20'  long,  spiked  to  up-and-down  posts. 
Floor  with  connnon  inch  flooring  or  cement. 
The  center  posts,  4"  x  4",  are  spiked  on  top  of 
sills  4'  apart  each  way,  leaving  a  4'  aisle  through 
the  center  of  house.  The  plates  on  top  of  the 
posts  and  the  rafters  are  2"  x  4".  Drop  siding 
is  best  for  the  studding.    The  roof  is  sheeted  and 


shingled.  The  inside  of  the  house  should  be 
plastered  with  cement  plaster.  When  plastered 
it  is  easy  to  exterminate  lice  or  mites  and  the 
plastering  can  be  easily  whitewashed  and  swept 
off  clean. 

The  partitions  and  inside  doors  should  all  be 
wire  poultry  netting  fastened  on  strong  frames 
so  that  all  can  be  removed  when  the  breeding 
season  is  over  and  the  whole  house  be  used  in 
one  or  two  parts,  one  on  each  side.  Roosts  to 
perch  on  are  not  generally  used  in  this  house 
where  the  large  breeds  are  kept.  The  floor  cov- 
ered with  clean  straw  3"  or  4"  thick  makes 
a  good  roost  for  large  breeds.  It  is  claimed 
they  will  do  better  and  never  have  bumble  foot. 
The  straw  should  be  swept  out  once  a  week  and 
fresh  straw  supplied. 

The  windows  may  be  of  any  suitable  size. 
The  upper  windows  are  half  as  large  as  the 
lower  ones.  No  more  windows  should  be  used 
than  the  diagram  shows,  as  too  much  glass  light 
is  said  to  be  injurious  to  poultry. 

The  yards  outside  should  be  10'  wide  and  at 
least  100'  long.  To  get  four  yards  10'  on  each 
side  of  the  house  the  corner  pens  must  be 
l)rought  out  6'  on  each  corner  of  house.  This 
leaves  4'  of  the  house  for  each  of  the  outside 
pens.  These  pens  should  also  be  bedded  with 
straw  or  litter  of  some  kind  from  3"  to  5"  deep 
and  all  grain  fed  should  be  strewn  in  this  to 
make  the  hens  work  most  of  their  time. 

A  SUMMER  HEN  HOUSE. 

A  practice  in  some  communities  is  to  close 
up  tlie  Avinter  (juarters  of  fowls  and  compel 
them  to  seek  shelter  elsewhere  during  the  hot 
summer  weather,   the   object  being  to   rid  the 


FIG.     361.       CONVENIENT     POULTRY    HOUSE     (ELEVATION     AND    YARDS). 


POULTRY  HOUSES. 


203 


house  of  vermin,  avoid  further  care  of  the  fowls 
and  give  the  poultry  a  cooler  roosting  place. 
Those  who  thus  close  the  hen  houses  up  and  turn 
the  poultry  out  make  the  mistake  of  not  pro- 
viding other  quarters.  The  poultry  will  to  some 
extent  take  to  the  trees  and  this  will  teach  the 
young  fowls  to  roost  there,  which  not  only  ex- 
poses them  to  danger  during  the  night  but  ren- 
ders it  difficult  to  accustom  them  to  going  into 
a  house  when  fall  approaches. 

A  poultry  house  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  362 
that  has  the  advantage  of  being  quickly  and 
easily  constructed  adjacent  to  the  regular  house 
or  apart  from  it,  and  will  serve  the  purpose  of 
a  protection  to  the  fowls  during  the  night  al- 


house  has  served  its  purpose  for  a  summer  shel- 
ter it  still  has  a  further  usefulness  during  the 
winter  as  a  combination  scratching  shed  and  sun- 
ning place  for  the  poultry.  With  this  end  in 
view  the  shed  should  be  closely  attached  to  the 
regular  poultry  house.  Whether  the  house  is  to 
l3e  used  for  summer  or  for  both  summer  and 
winter,  it  should  have  a  water-tight  roof. 

A  SMALL  INEXPENSIVE  HEN  HOUSE. 

A  cheap  and  convenient  poultry  house  that  can 
be  built  by  any  farmer  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
363.  The  building  is  10'  x  24'  and  should  stand 
facing  the  south.     The  sides  and  ends  can  be 


-^d?€^^- 


FIG.    '.UyZ.       SUMMKR    HENHOUSE     (,  ELEVATION ) . 


most  as  effectually  as  though  they  w^ere  shut  in 
winter  quarters  under  lock  and  key,  provided 
always  that  the  lock  is  also  applied  to  the  latter. 
Its  general  plan  of  construction  is  shown 
quite  plainly  in  the  halftone.  It  has  a  shed  roof 
and  stands  with  an  end  to  the  other  poultry 
house.  The  back  and  the  other  end  are  sided 
with  rough  lumber.  The  front  is  left  almost 
entirely  open  save  for  the  covering  of  poultry 
netting,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  front  and 
yet  it  is  perfectly  open  to  the  air.  There  is  also 
a  door  by  which  the  structure  may  be  entered 
independently  of  the  regular  house.  The  sum- 
mer house  should  include  an  exit  other  than 
the  regular  door  for  the  poultry.    After  such  a 


made  of  rough  boards  and  the  cracks  battened 
with  laths  or  strips  inside  and  out,  or  matched 
boards  can  be  used  and  lined  inside  with  build- 
ing paper.  It  can  be  made  any  height  desired 
and  the  roof  can  be  made  of  shingles  or  matched 
and  grooved  boards  well  painted.  Fig.  363  gives 
an  end  view  of  the  inside.  A  partition  should 
extend  the  full  length  4'  from  the  north  side. 
This  will  make  an  entry  {A)  6'  x  24'  and  a  room 
{B)  4'  X  24',  which  can  be  made  in  two  pens 
6'  X  12'  if  desired.  T  is  a  movalile  floor  with 
two  roosting  poles  attached.  D  indicates  nest 
boxes,  extending  into  the  entry,  with  lids  so  og,^^ 
can  be  gathered  without  going  inside  the  pen. 
E  is  a  cleated  board  leading  to  the  nests.     The 


204 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    363.       SMALL    INEXPENSIVE    HEN    HOUSE. 

space  F  is  made  of  slats  so  fowls  can  reach 
through  to  the  drinking  trough  G.  H  is  a  sliding 
door  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  fowls,  which 
can  be  opened  and  closed  from  entry  by  means 
of  a  cord.  /  J  is  a  door  leading  from  the  entry 
to  the  pen. 

AN  ILLINOIS  POULTRY  HOUSE. 

The  poultry  house  shown  in  Fig.  364  is 
7'  X  16'  and  7'  high  at  the  front  side  and  4'  at 
the  back,  with  a  shed  roof.  It  may  be  built 
of  2"  X  4"  for  frame,  covered  with  common 
rough  or  dressed  boards  and  battened  on  the 
outside  with  planed  or  rough  battens.  Shingles 
are  l^etter  for  roof  than  tarred  paper,  which  does 
not  make  a  durable  roof.  To  make  it  warm  the 
house  should  be  lined  inside  with  tarred  paper 
and  should  have  at  least  two  9"  x  13"  six-light 
windows  in  the  south  side  near  the  center  of  the 
building.  A  half  dozen  flat  stones  may  be  used 
for  a  foundation  just  set  even  with  the  surface 
so  as  to  allow  the  sills  to  clear  the  ground. 
Gravel  or  cinders  to  the  depth  of  6"  may  be  used 
for  floor.  All  surface  water  in  winter  and  early 
spring  should  be  kept  out.  The  gravel  or  cin- 
ders may  be  covered  with  sand  so  as  to  make  a 
smooth  surface. 

The  roosts  should  be  built  on  the  north  side 
of  inch  boards  cut  into  4"  strips  and  should 
have  the  edges  made  rounding  and  set  flat  side 
down  in  notches  cut  in  brackets  extending  from 
the  back  side  of  the  coop.  The  perches  are  2y->' 
above  the  floor  and  under  them  is  suspended  a 
platform  to  receive  the  droppings,  which  can  be 
easily  removed  every  morning  or  twice  a  Aveek. 
The  floor  can  be  kept  clean  by  using  a  common 
garden  rake  and  raking  up  all  the  droppings  that 


may  be  scattered  during  the  day.  The  material 
for  the  house  shown  in  Fig.  364  costs,  exclusive 
of  floor  and  paint,  about  $12. 

To  build  the  yards  connected  with  the  house 
set  posts  12'  apart  and  board  up  2'  from  the 
ground  with  common  rough  12"  boards;  then 
a])ove  that  use  2"  mesh  poultry  netting  36" 
wide.  This  makes  a  fence  5'  high  and  no  fowl 
except  some  of  the  small  breeds  will  ever  fly 
over  it.  The  boards  at  the  bottom  are  to  keep 
cocks  from  fighting  through  the  fence.  If  de- 
sired this  house  can  be  used  for  breeding  fowls 
to  accommodate  two  yards  for  12  fowls  each  by 


FIG.     364.        ILLINOIS    POULTRY    HOUSE    AND    YARDS. 

running  a  partition  through  the  center  and  hav- 
ing each  yard  connect  with  one  end  of  the  house. 
The  yard  should  be  50'  wide  and  100'  long, 
north  and  south,  with  north  end  connecting 
with  the  house.  If  a  large  number  of  fowls  is 
to  be  kept  a  number  of  these  houses  can  be  built 
in  a  row,  all  facing  the  south,  far  enough  apart 
to  admit  of  the  runs  or  yards  being  built  50' 
Avide.  In  thi.::  case  a  tight  fence  can  be  built  be- 
tween the  houses  on  the  north  side  to  keep  the 
cold  wind  from  the  fowls. 

A  HOUSE  WITH  SECRET  NESTS. 

The  poultry  house  shown  in  Fig.  365  has  some 
good  points  about  it  not  generally  used.  It  ac- 
commodates 100  hens  and  is  20'  long,  12'  wide 
and  12'  high  at  the  back  side.  It  has  a  dirt- 
proof  roosting  floor  running  from  the  top  of 
the  back  side  to  near  the  bottom  of  the  front. 
This  floor  is  made  of  cheap  flooring  boards  and 
lacks  2'  of  being  the  full  length  of  the  building. 
This  space  allows  one  to  pass  from  the  house 
proper  to  the  perches,  which  are  placed  along 
on  the  upper  side  of  this  slanting  floor  far 
enough  apart  to  be  perfectly  clear  of  each  other, 
the  droppings  rolling  down  in  front  of  and  out- 
side the  building.  LTnderneath  the  bottom  of  this 
floor  is  made  a  run  extending  half  way  across 
the  width  of  the  building.     The  top  of  the  run 


POULTRY  HOUSES. 


205 


is  intended  for  nests.  At  the  bottom  of  the  back 
are  two  rows  of  secret  nests.  jMake  a  number 
of  windows  in  the  south  and  at  least  two  in  the 
back.  The  perches  should  not  come  nearer  than 
6"   of  the  slanting  floor  and  should  be   easy 


r 


FIQ.    365.        HOUSE    WITH    SECRET    NESTS. 

to  remove  for  cleaning  and  whitewashing  as 
often  as  desired.  All  nests  should  be  movable, 
one  at  a  time  if  wanted.  An  earthen  or  cement 
floor  may  be  used.  At  the  bottom  of  the  perches 
lay  a  flat  board  on  which  to  walk. 

The  secret  nests  open  on  the  inside,  but  are 
built  on  the  outside.  Chickens  enter  at  the  door 
and  a  small  open  window  which  is  made  above 
the  slanting  floor  at  the  back  end.  The  opening 
at  the  bottom  of  the  slanting  floor  is  about  6" 
in  the  clear.  The  building  faces  south  and  has 
the  door  or  entryway  in  the  east.  The  double 
row  of  secret  nests  is  to  the  right.  Another  row 
of  nests  is  made  to  the  left.  These  nests  are 
built  upon  the  run,  which  is  open  only  under 
the  south  side  of  the  building.  The  upper  half 
of  the  south  side  is  made  chiefly  of  glass. 

A  SIMPLE  TYPE  OF  HENHOUSE. 

One  of  the  essential  characteristics  of  a  model 
poultry  house  is  that  it  shall  not  be  too  ex- 
pensive to  be  within  the  reach  of  the  average 
farmer.  Another  essential  is  that  it  be  warm 
and  another  that  it  be  well  lighted.    The  illustra- 


tion (Fig.  366)  very  nearly  explains  itself.  The 
front  of  the  house  should  face  the  south.  It  is 
10'  high  in  front  and  6'  in  the  rear.  With  a 
width  of  12'  the  house  may  be  built  of  16' 
boards  without  waste.  No  frame  is  needed  ex- 
cept the  horizontal  girts.  Braces  should  be  cut 
and  nailed  diagonally  to  stiffen  the  building. 
Put  several  windows  in  the  front  to  let  in  sun- 
light in  winter.  All  roosts  should  be  on  the 
same  level  or  there  will  be  endless  rivalry  for 


FIG.    366.       SIMPLE    TYPE    OF    HEN    HOUSE. 


high  perches.  Along  the  front  put  the  nests.  A 
is  a  hinged  board  that  may  be  lifted  to  gather 
the  eggs.  B  is  the  alleyway  through  which  the 
hens  pass  to  their  nests. 

The  house  may  be  built  12'  x  20'  for  100  hens. 

HOUSE  FOR  150  HENS. 

The  house  shown  in  Fig.  367  for  150  hens 
may  be  divided  into  five  departments.  A  good 
width  is  15'.  Make  a  scratching  room  where 
the  exercise  will  be  had  and  the  food  given  in 
deep,  dry  litter  15'  square.  Next  this  is  a  roost- 
ing apartment  5'  x  15'.  Then  make  another 
roosting  room  for  the  second  pen,  then  another 
scratching  room  and  so  on  the  length  of  the 
house,  which  in  this  plan  is  15'  x  100'.  Let  the 
roof  slope  from  front  to  rear,  the  house  5'  high 
at  the  rear  and  8'  in  front  with  glass  at 
the  scratching  room  to  cover  at  least  a  fourth  of 
the  space.  Let  the  sun  in.  Have  the  glass  in 
front  of  the  scratching  sheds  so  that  the  win- 
dows may  open  on  hinges  and  the  fowls  be  re- 
strained by  wire. 

Take  the  foul  air  out  by  means  of  galvanized 
iron  pipes  (with  dampers)  6"  in  diameter  run- 
ning up  through  the  roof  and  opening  near  the 
ground  to  admit  the  colder  and  fouler  air  from 
near  the  floor.  Let  the  roosts  be  easily  remov- 
able and  all  on  the  same  level.  Turn  the  glass 
side  toward  the  sun.    ]\Iake  the  house  tight  and 


206 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


100  PEET 


ScMTCHINO 
ROOM 


ROOM 


ScRATCHIMO 
ROOM 


-4 


SORATCHIHS 
ROOM 


WIMOOW  WINDOW  W  W  WINDOW 

FIG.      367.       HOUSE     FOR      150      HENS      (ARRANGEMENT). 


ScRATCHinO 

ROOM 


warm  by  double  boarding  and  tarred  paper.  Put 
in  a  cement  floor.  The  partitions  may  be  made 
of  wire.  The  doors  should  swing  on  double- 
acting  spring  hinges  so  that  one  may  go  rapidly 
through  them  in  either  direction. 

A  PRACTICAL  HENHOUSE. 

The  poultry  house  shown  in  Fig.  368  has  a 
shed  roof  and  faces  the  south.  This  house  may 
be  10'  wide  and  as  long  as  desired  to  accommo- 
date the  number  of  chickens  kept.  The  scratch- 
ing shed  is  in  the  center  of  the  building  and 


w 

r 

» 

1 

FIG.    368.       A    PRACTICAL    HENHOUSE. 

communicates  with  each  room  by  means  of 
doors,  which  may  be  locked  at  night,  thus  allow- 
ing the  chickens  to  be  confined  at  night. 

The  roof  projects  over  the  south,  east  and  west 
sides  1'  and  is  raised  5"  higher  than  the  siding, 
allowing  free  ventilation.  Two  very  large  win- 
dows admit  light  and  warmth.  Extending  the 
entire  length  of  each  room  is  a  laying  box,  di- 
vided into  compartments  and  covered  with  a 
hinged  lid,  allowing  the  eggs  to  be  gathered  by 
simply  raising  the  lid  in  passing  along  on  the 
outside.  Two  rooms  built  in  this  way  are  much 
better  than  one,  because  very  often  one  class  of 
fowls  should  be  separated  from  the  rest.  The 
floor  should  be  tight  and  be  cleaned  weekly.  The 
inner  side  of  walls  should  be  whitewashed  fre- 
quently, as  the  lime  will  cause  vermin  to  seek 
other  quarters. 

A  FAR]\I  POULTRY  HOUSE. 


admit  the  sun ;  make  the  sleeping  quarters  warm ; 
provide  an  open  wire-enclosed  front  for  the 
scratching  shed  when  built  in  the  cornbelt  or, 
further  south,  make  the  floors  of  earth  and  keep 
them  well  littered ;  make  the  roosts  movable  and 
not  to  touch  the  walls.  Farm  poultry  should 
not  be  confined  except  occasionally;  the  scratch- 
ing shed  affords  opportunity  for  occasional  con- 
finement. 


03 


l2'x  16^ 

-       SCRATCHING       " 
SHED 

ROOSTS 

8'xi2' 

FIGS.    369,    370    AND    371.       A    FARM    POULTRY    HOUSE. 

A  HOUSE  SERVING  TWO  YARDS. 


This  building    {Figs.  369  to  371)    accommo-         Fig.  372  represents  the  south  side  and  west 
dates  from  50  to  75  fowls.    Face  it  to  the  south  to     end  of  a  henhouse  10'  wide  and  20'  long,  di- 


POULTRY  HOUSES. 


207 


MPPPP 


FIG.     372.       A     HOUSE    SERVING    TWO    YARDS. 


vided  into  two  rooms  by  a  partition  of  wire  net- 
ting. This  building  serves  two  yards,  as  the 
middle  fence  between  the  two  j-ards  joins  up  to 
the  center  of  the  building  at  the  front  and 
back.  Fig.  373  represents  the  platform  and 
perches  removed  from  the  house  to  the  outside,  in 
order  to  get  a  good  view  of  it.  It  stands  on  the 
outside  in  the  same  position  as  if  in  use  on  the 
inside.  Fig.  374  represents  the  perches  as  raised 
up  against  the  wall  in  cleaning,  to  a  perpendicu- 
lar position.  Fig.  375  represents  the  perches  and 
platform  raised  to  a  perpendicular  position  for 
the  purpose  of  cleaning  out  the  trough. 

MONTANA  POULTRY  BUILDING. 


FIG.     373.        A    HOUSE    SERVING    TWO    YARDS. 


FIG.     374.       A    HOUSE    SERVING    TWO    YARDS. 


Figs.  376  to  379  represent  plans  of  the  new 
poultry  building  at  the  ]Montana  Experiment  Sta- 
tion.    It  is  a  model  design  and  comparatively 


FIG.    376.       MONTANA   POULTRY   BUILDING     (END    SECTION). 


V' 

"cvj 

CO 

-, 

..16'., 

16'.. 

..16'. 

..16.. 

..J6'.. 

..16'. 

;..I6'. 

...16'.; 

d 

>i 

/- 

.j: 

18\ 

--; 

FIG.     375.        A    HOUSE    SERVING    TWO    YARDS. 


FIG.     377.        MONTANA     POULTRY     BUILDING      (FLOOR). 


208 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


n. 


10-10  SLIDE 

FIG.     378.       MONTANA    POULTRY    BUILDING     (SIDE    SECTION). 


PORDHES 


DROPPING 


ROOSTING 


I F^ 


BOARDS^ 


o     7-9 
ROOM 


I       11 


CO 

J   SCWCHING  PEN 
^lOWSUOE 


9H2 


cu 


io¥slide\/io-io1slide 


JZL 


K-- 


3E 


w 


FIG.    379.      MONTANA    POULTRY    BUILDING    (INTERIOR    ARRANGEMENT). 


inexpensive.  This  house  is  built  with  an  open 
curtain  front,  scratching  shed  and  a  roosting 
room  that  may  be  closed  up  snugly  in  cold 
weather.  The  outside  walls  at  the  back  and  ends 
are  boarded  with  rough  lumber  on  the  studding, 
then  tarred  paper  and  on  this  rustic  siding. 
Two  roosting  pens  are  built  together  and  are 
divided  by  a  single  board  partition.  The  out- 
side Avails  of  the  roosting  pen  have  tar  paper 
and  shiplap  on  each  side  of  the  studding.  The 
roof  of  the  roosting  pen  is,  first,  tar  paper  on  the 


A  MINNESOTA  POULTRY  HOUSE. 

Figs.  380  to  383  give  a  good  idea  of  the  poul- 
try house  at  the  Northwest  Experimental  Farm 
in  Polk  County,  IMinn.  Such  a  house  can  be  built 
at  moderate  cost  for  size  and  has  been  found 
to  be  very  convenient  and  satisfactory  for  rais- 
ing and  handling  poultry  in  Minnesota.  The 
arrangement  of  yards,  nests,  roosts,  feed  bins 
and  colony  houses  will  be  readily  understood 
from  the  pictures  submitted  herewith.  The  colony 


FIG.     380.      MINNESOTA    POULTRY    HOUSE     (ELEVATIONS). 


rafters  and  then  ceiled  with  shiplap.  This  gives  houses  are  eight  in  number  and  are  constructed 
quite  a  warm  pen  and  the  birds  are  kept  in  good  so  as  to  be  movable.  They  are  built  of  matched 
health  even  in  the  coldest  weather.  flooring  and  covered  with  a  patent  paper.    They 


POULTRY  HOUSES. 


209 


f 


FIG.     381.      MINXESOT.\     POULTRY     HOUSE     (COLONY     DEPARTMENT). 


NtSTSUNDtR 
\ 

\  n  n        no 


NESTS  UNOCn 


riRC  NtllINO 


DROPPINOBOi  RO 


^„    n^    R„    rt„    n^    n^^.iP 


^  DOOR 
FIG.     3S2.       IIINXCSOTA    POULTRY     HOUSE      (ARRANGEMENT). 


are  6'  x  12'  in  size  and  set  on  4"  x  4"  runners. 
Their  height  is  3'  at  lowest  point,  5'  at  high- 
est. The  dimensions  of  the  main  house  are  16' 
X  148'  and  it  is  4'  6"  high  at  lowest  point  and 
7'  6"  at  highest.  The  entire  plant  consists  of 
the  principal  poultry  house,  a  brick  incubator 
cellar  16'  x  16',  and  eight  colony  houses. 

COLONY  HOUSE  FOR  A  DOZEN  HENS. 

A  poultry  farmer  thus  describes  the  henhouse 
shown  in  Fig.  383:  "The  open  end  faces  south 
and  2"  mesh  poultry  netting  encloses  the  porch- 
like space  which  is  supported  by  posts.  The 
series  of  houses,  of  wliich  the  picture  represents 
one  of  the  units,  cost  about  $15  each,  but  the  ex- 
pense was  not  spared  in  building  them.  Houses 
could  be  built  on  this  plan  for  much  less  than 
these  cost.  The  enclosed  north  end  has  a  floor 
in  it.  ])ut  the  open-air  part  has  not.  The  size 
is  6'  X  6'  on  the  ground  and  the  peak  of  the  roof 
is  6'  high.  The  door  is  in  the  south  end.  as 
shown  in  the  picture.  This  plan  gives  shade, 
abundance  of  fresh  air  and  the  enclosed  space  is 
protected  from  rains.  The  owner  has  used  his 
houses  built  on  this  plan  for  Wyandottes  during 


the  winter.  To  make  Avinter  houses  of  them  he 
simply  stands  cornstalks  on  the  east  and  west 
sides  and  part  of  the  south,  keeping  them  in 


FIG.    383.       COLONY    HOUSE    FOR    A    DOZEN    HE.NS. 

place  with  a  light  shingling  lath  frame.  The 
open  space  at  the  door  and  the  windows,  one 
of  which  is  shown  in  the  picture,  give  light  and 
air." 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 


CEMENT— CONCRETE. 

Concrete  is  artificial  stone  made  from  broken 
stone,  gravel  or  sand,  or  a  combination  of  these 
united  by  the  use  of  cement.  Cements  are  of 
several  kinds;  some  are  made  from  natural 
rocks  in  which  there  is  found  a  right  combina- 
tion of  lime  and  other  material;  these  rocks  are 
burned,  ground,  then  used  by  wetting  and  al- 
lowing to  harden  again.  The  so-called  ' '  natural ' ' 
cements  are  not  usually  as  good  for  work  re- 
quiring strength  or  durability  in  situations  ex- 
posed to  water  and  frost  as  the  other  class  of 
cements  called  "Portland." 

The  name  Portland  has  not  now  reference  to 
the  place  of  manufacture,  but  merely  defines  the 
composition  of  a  cement.  Portland  cements  are 
usually  made  by  the  union  of  lime  and  clay, 
burned  together,  then  ground  finely.  Some  ce- 
ments are  made  from  natural  mixtures  of  marl, 
some  from  slag,  a  byproduct  of  steel  plants.  All 
have  approximately  the  same  chemical  forma- 
tion, and  in  making  Portland  cements  expert 
chemists  are  employed  to  watch  the  mixtures 
and  see  that  no  variation  from  the  standard  is 
allowed.  Portland  cement,  well  made,  when 
rightly  mixed  with  sand,  broken  stone  or  gravel, 
makes  an  artificial  stone  impervious  to  moisture, 
is  uninjured  by  freezing,  and  bids  fair  to  be  as 
durable  as  good  stone.  It  has  the  immense  ad- 
vantage of  being  easily  moulded  into  any  de- 
sired form  and  thus  comes  to  the  aid  of  the 
farmer  in  a  multitude  of  ways. 

Good  concrete  is  an  artificial  stone  in  which 
there  are  no  voids,  that  is,  no  unfilled  spaces, 
and  where  each  grain  of  sand  or  fine  material  is 
coated  with  a  thin  film  of  cement,  uniting  it  to 
the  adjacent  bit  of  material.  Concrete  so  made 
is  ideal,  and  will  endure  as  long,  no  doubt,  as 
good  stone.  It  is  made  by  right  mechanical  mix- 
ture of  materials  and  right  assorting  of  mate- 
rials. If  clean  pit  gravel  is  used  it  may  be 
found  that  nature  has  mixed  the  ingredients 
fairly  well,  since  between  the  larger  pebbles  there 
will  be  an  admixture  of  smaller  pebbles  and 
sand.  The  remaining  voids  or  open  spaces  now 
need  only  to  be  filled  with  cement,  which  from 
its  finely  ground  condition  is  well  suited  for 
filling  these  minute  spaces,  and  water  added 
enough  to  moisten  the  mass,  when  it  will  make 
a  perfectly  solid  stone. 

How  does  the  union  of  these  materials  take 
place?     It  is  not  very  well  understood  how  ce- 


ments "set"  and  harden,  but  it  seems  that  the 
small  particles  of  cement  when  wet  partially 
dissolve  and  as  they  "set"  they  assume  crystal- 
line forms  and  throw  out  little  protuberances 
which  fill  all  inecjualities  and  pores  and  rough 
places  in  whatever  material  is  next  them,  and 
thus  get  hold  and  hang  on.  They  may  also  dis- 
solve, or  at  least  soften,  the  surface  of  other 
hard  materials  next  them,  and  thus  unite  in  a 
measure  with  these  materials,  for  it  is  well 
known  that  cement  will  adhere  tenaciously  to 
smooth  stone  and  even  to  glass  itself.  It  is 
readily  seen  that  when  cements  are  setting,  or 
hardening,  and  the  little  crystals  are  forming 
and  getting  hold,  no  motion  or  disturbance 
whatever  is  permissible,  else  all  strength  will  be 
destroyed.  The  time  of  setting  varies ;  the  first 
set  may  occur  in  a  few  hours,  during  warm 
weather ;  in  a  day  or  two  during  cooler  weather, 
and  from  that  time  on  the  work  proceeds  cumu- 
latively for  a  week  or  ten  days,  when  there  is  a 
fair  degree  of  hardness,  and  for  another  month 
the  strength  increases.  It  may  be  said  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  that  in  45  days  concrete  has  gained 
its  working  strength,  though  it  will  yet  continue 
to  gain  for  some  weeks  or  even  months,  vary- 
ing with  the  cement  used  and  the  conditions 
under  which  it  is  used. 

Concrete  should  not  get  prematurely  dry 
while  it  is  setting,  as  when  it  is  dry  the  process 
of  crystallization  ceases,  and  it  is  not  usually 
possible  to  start  it  again  by  subsequent  wetting. 
Concrete  is  often  ruined  by  its  not  being  kept 
moist  while  this  hardening  process  is  going  on. 

Inferior  cement  is  made  when  the  voids  are 
not  nearly  filled,  when  so  little  cement  is  used 
that  two  particles  of  sand  or  of  stone  come  to- 
gether with  no  particle  of  cement  between  them. 
Naturally  no  union  can  then  take  place.  In- 
ferior concrete  is  made  when  the  mixing  is  bad, 
and  too  much  cement  is  in  one  part  of  the  mass 
and  too  little  in  another  part.  Poor  concrete  is 
made  when  too  little  water  is  used  and  crystal- 
lization, rr  setting,  cannot  perfectly  take  place,  or 
too  much  water  and  the  cement  is  washed  away. 
Poor  concrete  is  made  when  the  stuff  is  dis- 
turbed after  setting,  or  is  allowed  to  dry  out  be- 
fore it  hardens.  Any  such  carelessness  will  re- 
sult in  a  soft,  crumbling  concrete,  unsafe  in  a 
building  and  of  short  usefulness  in  a  pavement. 
Poor  concrete  is  made  by  using  a  great  excess 
of  cement,  also  since  it  will  be  the  more  apt  to 
crack   through   the   natural   contraction   of   ce- 


210 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 


211 


ment  as  it  sets.     This  fault  is  not  often  seen. 

A  man  to  use  concrete  should  not  be  above 
thinking  a  little,  and  the  work  will  warrant 
thought  and  care.  In  beginning  with  new  ma- 
terial one  should  seek  to  learn  what  per  cent  of 
voids,  or  empty  spaces,  is  to  be  filled.  If  he 
has  a  natural  gravel  to  work  with  it  is  very  de- 
sirable that  he  learn  just  how  much  cement  is 
needed  to  go  with  it.  A  coarse  gravel,  which 
may  be  used  in  heavy  work,  usually  needs  less 
cement  than  a  fine  one,  and  a  gravel  that  has 
the  spaces  pretty  well  filled  with  finer  material — 
not  earth,  but  pebbles  and  sharp  sand — will  need 
less  than  one  without  the  right  mixture.  If 
there  are  spaces  between  the  stones  of  the  gravel 
plainly  apparent  to  the  eye  it  may  be  well  at 
the  outset  to  try  to  add  some  clean,  sharp  sand, 
enough  to  fill  the  voids  in  part.  One  can  do 
this  by  taking  a  measure  of  gravel,  adding  a 
part  of  sand  and  mixing  thoroughly,  then  test- 
ing to  see  if  it  will  still  go  into  the  measure. 
It  it  will,  or  if  it  only  slightly  overruns,  it  is 
evident  that  the  addition  of  that  amount  of  finer 
material  has  been  a  clear  gain  in  economy  and 
strength  of  the  finished  material. 

To  determine  how  much  cement  is  needed  as 
good  a  test  as  can  be  made  is  to  take  two  meas- 
ures (they  should  be  cylinders  of  the  same  size 
at  top  and  bottom  for  convenience  of  measure- 
ment ) .  fill  one  with  gravel,  the  other  with  water. 
The  gravel  should  be  fairly  dry.  Two  buckets 
holding  a  gallon  or  more  will  serve  for  this  test. 
"When  filled  and  shaken  slightly,  water  should 
be  added  to  the  gravel,  slowly,  from  the  measure 
of  water.  It  should  be  poured  in  slowly  and  let 
the  air  escape  through  the  mass.  Wlien  it  will 
take  no  more  water  it  is  pretty  nearly  full  as  to 
voids.  Now  measure  the  water  vessel  and  see  how 
much  water  has  been  added  to  the  gravel,  or  sand, 
or  whatever  material  is  being  used.  For  instance, 
if  the  vessels  are  12"  high  and  you  dip  from  the 
water  vessel  and  pour  into  the  gravel  four  inches 
of  water,  then  one-third  of  the  space  occupied  by 
the  gravel  is  void,  and  to  make  a  good  concrete 
there  should  be  added  one  measure  of  cement  to 
three  of  dry  material.  If  you  find  that  only  two 
inches  of  water  are  taken  in,  then  one-sixth  of 
the  space  is  void,  and  one  part  of  cement  will 
fill  voids  in  six  parts  of  material ;  that  is,  it 
would  fill  it  if  mixing  was  perfect  and  complete. 
If  it  is  imperfect  more  cement  will  be  needed, 
and  it  is  wise  to  add  a  little  more  than  this 
rule  would  call  for  any\vay,  say  10  per  cent 
more. 

With  ordinary  good  pit  gravel  it  has  been 
found  that  one  part  of  cement  with  six  parts 
of  gravel  makes  a  good  concrete  for  foundation 
walls,  the  basis  of  floors  and  the  like.  For  sur- 
facing or  for  f-^nce  posts  or  any  work  where 


coarse  gravel  cannot  be  used  a  finer  sort  is 
needed  and  here  the  proportions  will  change  till 
as  much  may  be  called  for  as  one  to  three,  or 
even  less,  of  stone  to  cement.  It  is  well  never 
to  guess  as  to  this  vital  point  in  concrete  mak- 
ing. Here  is  where  most  work  is  spoiled,  ma- 
terial and  labor  wasted  and  ruin  of  endeavor 
made  inevitable.  As  materials  vary  so  much 
everywhere  there  is  no  prescribing  for  any  case 
unless  one  can  make  the  test  as  outlined. 

In  many  regions  gravel  or  crushed  stone  is 
not  available  and  sand,  sometimes  rather  fine, 
is  the  only  material  at  hand.  With  fine  sand  as 
much  as  one  part  of  cement  to  three  parts  of 
sand,  or  perhaps  more  cement  even  than  that, 
is  sometimes  needed  to  make  a  good  job.  Other 
and  coarser  sand  will  give  good  results  with  a 
smaller  proportion. 

In  large  masses,  for  retaining  and  foundation 
walls,  gravel  may  have  in  it  stones  as  large  as 
apples,  so  there,  are  not  too  many  of  them  and 
there  is  a  suitable  mixture  of  finer  particles: 
this  coarse  stuff  insures  a  harder  concrete  with  a 
given  amount  of  cement  than  if  they  were  ab- 
sent. 

Concrete  work  should  not  be  done  in  freezing 
weather  if  it  can  be  avoided.  Frost  will  pre- 
vent the  adhesion  of  the  different  layers  and  will 
cause  the  surface  to  peel  off  and  may  ruin  the 
job.  Salt  is  frequently  used  to  prevent  the 
freezing  of  concrete,  which  it  will  do  if  the 
thermometer  does  not  drop  too  low.  The  amount 
of  salt  may  be  10  per  cent  of  the  weight  of 
Mater  used,  or  12  pounds  of  salt  to  a  barrel  of 
cement.  It  would  seem  that  owing  to  its  affinity 
for  iron  salt  should  not  be  used  in  making  re- 
inforced concrete.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  heat 
the  sand  and  water  so  as  to  bring  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  fresh  mixed  concrete  to  about  75° 
Fahrenheit,  and  to  protect  from  frost  thereafter 
as  long  as  possible.  Concrete  sets  much  more 
slowly  in  cold  weather. 

The  importance  of  good  mixing  can  hardly 
be  overestimated,  and  here  is  where  careless,  im- 
patient or  lazy  men  fail.  Machine  mixing  is 
often  good,  but  machines  are  usually  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  farmer.  Hand-power  machines 
are  not  worth  considering.  Shovels  are  good  and 
fairly  rapid  in  operation,  if  manned  by  willing 
arms. 

Prepare  a  smooth  wooden  platform  on  which 
to  mix;  it  should  be,  if  much  concrete  is  to  be 
made,  about  14'  long  and  8'  wide.  There  need 
be  no  sides  to  it,  though  if  a  small  platform  or 
floor  is  used  side  pieces  about  6"  high  are  ad- 
missible. Prepare  a  measuring  box  for  coarse 
material.  This  may  be  3'  x  3'.  with  a  depth  of 
18",  inside  measure.  That  will  make  it  hold 
half  a  vard,  level  full.    Make  no  bottom  to  the 


212 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


box.  As  one  must  leave  mixing  sometimes  to 
men  who  are  apt  to  forget,  it  is  wise  to  mark 
plainly  this  measuring  box  with  the  proportion 
of  cement  needed,  as  thus :  "  I/2  cubic  yard,  two 
sacks  (V2  barrel)  of  cement"  or  "three  sacks 
(1/2  barrel)  of  cement,"  as  the  work  may  re- 
quire.    This  may  save  serious  errors  in  mixing. 

To  begin,  lay  the  box  on  the  platform  and 
shovel  it  half  full  of  material.  Add  half  the 
cement  needed.  Fill  again  nearly  full,  add  the 
rest  of  the  cement  and  finish  filling.  Now  lift 
ofiP  the  box,  leaving  the  pile  of  material  on  the 
platform.  Begin  with  long-handled  shovels,  lift- 
ing this  pile  and  placing  it  in  another  place  on 
the  platform.  Take  each  shovelful  exactly  from 
the  bottom  of  the  pile.  Place  it  exactly  on  the 
top  of  the  new  pile.  Continue  this  operation 
till  all  the  first  pile  has  been  transferred  to  the 
new  one.  Clean  it  up  neatly,  else  you  will  not 
get  an  even  mixture.  See  to  it  that  each  man 
observes  this  simple  rule  to  take  each  shovelful 
from  the  very  bottom  and  lift  it  to  the  very 
exact  top  of  the  new  pile.  Experiment  will 
show  the  sufficient  reason  for  this;  each  shovel- 
ful of  material  placed  on  the  sharp  cone  of  the 
new  pile  rolls  down  equally  on  each  side  and  thus 
there  is  quite  a  good  mixture  right  at  once.  When 
the  old  pile  is  cleaned  up  begin  on  the  second 
pile  and  shovel  it  all  back  to  the  starting  point, 
observing  the  same  rule.  When  it  is  all  in  that 
pile  put  it  again  into  another.  That  gives  three 
shovelings,  and  by  this  time  it  is  very  well 
mixed,  well  enough  for  ordinary  use,  though  for 
exceptionally  nice  work  another  mixing  is  ad- 
vised. 

To  add  the  water,  a  large  sprinkling  can  is 
the  best  thing  to  use,  and  it  should  be  provided 
with  a  hose  that  lets  water  out  pretty  freely. 
Let  one  man  put  on  water,  all  on  one  side,  and 
another  man  hoe  away  the  wetted  material  as 
fast  as  it  becomes  saturated,  not  ever  letting  it 
run  down,  as  that  washes  the  cement  off  the  peb- 
bles and  injures  the  concrete.  When  it  is  all 
wetted  a  little  more  water  may  be  worked  into 
it.  It  is  well  to  make  it  as  wet  as  it  can  be 
without  being  sloppy,  or  water  standing  on  it. 

Once  it  was  thought  that  dry  mixtures  were 
best,  with  much  ramming.  Now  most  engineers 
specify  pretty  wet  mixtures  and  little  ramming. 
As  soon  as  the  concrete  is  wet  hurry  it  to  place, 
and  agitate  it  just  enough  to  settle  it  solidly  to- 
gether. The  wetter  it  is,  so  water  does  not  flow 
from  it,  the  better  and  the  more  readily  it  is 
made  to  assume  a  compact  form,  filling  the 
mould,  whatever  that  may  be. 

Clean  up  carefully  the  platform  before  mix- 
ing any  more.  Use  sand  and  gravel  as  dry  as 
you  can  and  the  mixture  will  be  more  uniform. 


KINDS  OF  CEMENTS. 

There  are  four  great  classes  included  in  the 
group  of  ''hydraulic  cements,"  as  that  term  is 
used  by  the  engineer.  The  relationship  of  the 
various  cementing  materials  can  be  concisely  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  diagram : 

Non-hydraulic  cements — 

Plaster  of  paris,  cement  plaster,  Keene's 
cement,  etc. 

Common  lime. 
Hydraulic  cements — 

Hydraulic  lime. 

Natural  cements. 

Portland  cements. 

Puzzolan  cements. 

Non-hydraulic  cements. — Non-hydraulic  ce- 
ments do  not  have  the  property  of  "setting"  or 
hardening  under  water.  They  are  made  by 
burning,  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature, 
either  gypsum  or  pure  limestone.  The  products 
obtained  by  burning  gypsum  are  marketed  as 
plaster  of  paris,  cement  plaster,  Keene's  cement, 
etc.,  according  to  details  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture. The  product  of  burning  limestone  is 
common  lime. 

Hydraulic  cements. — The  hydraulic  cements 
are  those  which  set  when  used  under  water, 
though  the  different  kinds  differ  greatly  iii  the 
extent  to  which  they  possess  this  property,  which 
is  due  to  the  formation  during  manufacture  of 
compounds  of  lime  with  silica,  alumina  and  iron 
oxide. 

Natural  cements. — Natural  cements  are  pro- 
duced by  burning  a  naturally  impure  limestone, 
containing  from  15  to  40  per  cent  of  silica, 
alumina  and  iron  oxide,  at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature,  about  that  of  ordinary  lime  burn- 
ing. The  operation  can  therefore  be  carried  on 
in  a  kiln  closely  resembling  an  ordinary  lime 
kiln.  During  the  burning  the  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  limestone  is  almost  entirely  driven  off. 
and  the  lime  combines  with  the  silica,  alumina 
and  iron  oxide,  forming  a  mass  containing  sili- 
cates and  ferrites  of  lime.  If  the  original  lime- 
stone contained  much  magnesium  carbonate  the 
burned  rock  Avill  contain  a  corresponding  amount 
of  magnesia. 

The  burned  mass  will  not  slack  if  water  l)e 
added.  It  is  necessary  therefore  to  grind  it 
rather  finely.  After  grinding,  if  the  resulting 
powder  (natural  cement)  be  mixed  with  water  it 
will  harden  rapidly.  This  hardening  or  setting 
will  also  take  place  under  water.  Natural  ce- 
ments differ  from  ordinary  limes  in  two  notice- 
able ways  : 

1.  The  burned  mass  does  not  slack  on  the  ad- 
dition of  water. 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


213 


2.  The  powder  has  hydraulic  properties,  i.  e., 
if  properly  prepared,  it  will  set  under  water. 

Natural  cement  differs  from  Portland  cements 
in  the  following  important  particulars: 

1.  Natural  cements  are  not  made  from  care- 
fully prepared  and  finely  ground  artificial  mix- 
tures, but  from  natural  rock. 

2.  Natural  cements  are  burned  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  Portland,  the  mass  in  the  kiln  never 
being  heated  high  enough  to  even  approach  the 
fusing  or  clinkering  point. 

3.  Natural  cements,  after  burning  and  grind- 
ing, are  usually  yellow  to  brown  in  color  and 
light  in  weight,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  2.7 
to  3.1,  while  Portland  cement  is  commonly  blue 
to  gray  in  color  and  heavier,  its  specific  gravity 
ranging  from  3  to  3.2. 

4.  Natural  cements  set  more  rapidly  than 
Portland  cement,  but  do  not  attain  so  high  ten- 
sile strength. 

5.  Portland  cement  is  a  definite  product,  its 
percentages  of  lime,  silica,  alumina  and  iron 
oxide  varying  only  between  narrow  limits,  while 
brands  of  natural  cements  vary  greatly  in  com- 
position. 

Portland  cement. — Portland  cement  is  pro- 
duced by  burning  a  finely  ground  artificial  mix- 
ture containing  essentially  lime,  silica,  alumnia 
and  iron  oxide  in  certain  definite  proportions. 
Usually  this  combination  is  made  by  mixing 
limestone  or  marl  with  clay  or  shale,  in  which 
case  the  mixture  should  contain  about  three 
parts  of  the  lime  carbonate  to  one  part  of  the 
clayey  materials.  The  burning  takes  place  at 
a  high  temperature,  approaching  3,000  degrees 
F.,  and  must  therefore  be  carried  on  in  kilns 
of  special  design  and  lining.  During  the  burn- 
ing, combination  of  the  lime  with  silica,  alumina 
and  iron  oxide  takes  place.  The  product  of  the 
burning  is  a  semi-fused  mass  called  "clinker," 
which  consists  of  silicates,  aluminates  and  fer- 
rites  of  lime  in  certain  fairly  definite  propor- 
tions. This  clinker  must  be  finely  ground.  After 
such  grinding  the  powder  (Portland  cement) 
will  set  under  water. 

Puzzolan  cements. — The  cementing  materials 
included  under  this  name  are  made  by  mixing 
powdered  slacked  lime  with  either  a  volcanic  ash 
or  a  blast-furnace  slag.  The  product  is  there- 
fore simply  a  mechanical  mixture  of  two  in- 
gredients, as  the  mixture  is  not  burned  at  any 
stage  of  the  process.  After  mixing,  the  mixture 
is  finely  ground.  The  resulting  powder  (puz- 
zolan cement)  will  set  under  water. 

Puzzolan  cements  are  usually  light  bluish,  and 
of  lower  specific  gravity  and  less  tensile  strength 
than  Portland  cement.  They  are  better  adapted 
to  use  under  water  than  in  air. 


USE   OF   CRUSHED   STONE. 

A  better  material  than  gravel  is  found  in 
crushed  stone  with  its  accompanying  fine  screen- 
ings. In  some  regions  this  is  cheaper  than  grav- 
el; it  makes  a  harder  concrete.  The  following 
table  of  voids  in  the  different  materials  will  be 
of  value.  It  is  given  on  the  authority  of  W.  L. 
Jackman  for  the  Chicago  Producers'  Supply  Co. : 

Material.  Per  cent  of  Voids. 

Limestone  screenings  (crusher  run)   16 

Gravel 20 

Pit  gravel 21 

E.  F.  screenings 22 

Sand ; 26 

Interpreting  this  it  would  be  safe  to  use  1 
measure  of  cement  to  about  6  of  limestone 
screenings,  1  to  5  of  gravel  and  1  to  4  of  sand. 

SOME  SPECIFICATIONS. 

Sand  should  be  clean  and  coarse.  Clean  sand 
is  free  from  loam  or  clay,  both  of  which  injure 
cement,  destroying  its  adhesive  quality.  Sand 
should  be  coarse ;  a  proportion  of  the  grains 
should  measure  1/32  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and 
if  some  of  them  run  to  1/16  or  to  1/8  or  1/4 
there  is  no  objection.  Fine  sand,  even  if  clean, 
makes  a  poor  mortar  and  if  it  must  be  used  a 
larger  proportion  of  cement  is  imperative  thor- 
oughly to  coat  its  grains,  and  more  labor  in  mix- 
ing is  also  imperative. 

Use  the  best  Portland  cements  obtainable. 
American  cement  is  the  best.  In  estimating  do 
not  make  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  6  barrels 
of  broken  stone,  3  barrels  of  sand  and  1  barrel 
of  cement  will  make  10  barrels  of  concrete.  The 
sand  merely  fills  the  voids  between  the  stones, 
while  the  cement  fills  the  voids  between  the 
grains  of  sand  and  the  whole  makes  slightly  in 
excess  of  6  barrels  of  concrete. 

For  heavy  Avails,  retaining  walls  and  piers  for 
barns,  when  screened  crushed  stone  is  used  these 
proportions  will  hold  good :  1  barrel  cement,  3 
barrels  sand  (11.4  cubic  feet),  6  barrels  (22.8 
cubic  feet )  loose  gravel  or  broken  stone. 

BUILDING  FORMS. 

Avoid  using  dry  wood  in  building  forms.  If 
it  must  be  used  it  may  be  soaked  before  placing. 
Boards  facing  the  work  should  be  well  oiled 
with  linseed  oil,  which  will  prevent  the  cement 
adhering  and  leaving  a  rough  surface.  If  the 
work  is  to  be  plastered  after  it  is  finished  no  oil' 
should  be  used.  In  building  forms  do  not  drive 
nails  home ;  leave  them  so  that  they  can  be 
pulled  again.  T^se  care  at  all  times  to  build  forms 
so  that  the  cement  cannot  imbed  the  ends  of 
boards  and  thus  make  it  diflfieult  or  imiiossible 
to  get  them  away.     With  boards  1"  thick  the 


214 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


supporting  studding  should  not  be  more  than  2' 
apart  to  withstand  the  ramming  and  settling  of 
soft  concrete.  For  2"  stuff  the  studding  may  be 
4'  or  5'  apart. 

The  floor  joists  of  a  building  may  be  used  to 
construct  the  forms  for  the  foundation  wall  with 
no  injury  to  the  joists. 

BUILDING  FOUNDATIONS, 

The  excavation  should  be  carefully  made,  and 
if  possible  so  that  the  earth  may  make  one  side 
of  the  form.  If  it  is  carelessly  done  there  will 
be  a  waste  of  concrete  towards  the  top  where  the 
wall  will  be  too  wide.  A  trench  just  outside  the 
wall  and  some  inches  deeper  should  be  dug  and 
in  it  laid  tiles,  which  may  be  covered  with  a 
few  inches  of  clean  gravel.  On  this  the  concrete 
will  rest.  It  should  be  remembered  that  con- 
crete is  capable  of  bearing  an  immense  weight, 
so  a  thick  wall  is  not  needed  to  support  any  or- 
dinary building ;  8"  is  usually  thick  enough.  The 
very  bottom  where  it  rests  on  the  earth  should  be 
made  wider,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
soil. 

Set  up  a  row  of  studding  to  hold  the  form  in 
this  manner:  Lay  down  on  the  cellar  bottom  a 
timber;  it  may  be  one  of  the  floor  joists,  or  any 
part  of  the  framing  stuff.  Let  it  come  within 
4"  of  the  required  edge  of  the  v/all.  Drive  a 
stout  stake  at  the  other  end  of  it.  Stand  up  a 
studding,  say  a  2"  x  6",  and  toe-nail  the  foot  of 
it  to  the  horizontal  piece.  Brace  the  stud  as 
shown  in  Fig.  384.  Set  a  row  of  these  studs  and 
place  planking  behind  them.  Now  begin  filling 
in  the  concrete,  about  8"  at  a  time,  and  settle  it 
down  solid.  When  you  have  filled  the  wall 
around  the  8"  begin  over  again.  If  material  is 
scant  not  all  the  wall  need  be  built  at  one  time. 
When  up  to  the  surface,  or  where  to  fill  against 
the  earth  would  make  too  thick  a  wall,  set  up  an 
outer  form.  This  may  be  tied  to  the  inner  one 
with  No.  12  wire,  two  strands,  about  the  stud- 
ding and  twisted  in  the  middle  to  bring  it  tight. 
Space  the  planks  apart  by  measured  blocks  while 
putting  on  the  wires.  See  that  all  is  plumb  and 
straight ;  it  cannot  be  moved  easily  after  it  has 
set.  Fill  full  and  level  carefully.  Let  the  forms 
remain  on  for  a  few  days  and  take  them  off  with 
great  care  to  do  no  pounding  or  jarring  which 
may  crack  the  wall.  Bolts  may  be  inserted  in 
the  soft  concrete,  the  heads  buried,  which  will 
engage  and  hold  any  wooden  superstructure. 

FINISHING   THE   WALL. 

If  the  form  was  smooth  and  neatly  put  to- 
gether the  wall  will  be  smooth  enough  for  all 
practical  purposes  with  no  further  work  on  it. 
Where  it  is  seen  from  the  outside  it  may  be 
desired  to  give  it  a  more  finished  appearance. 


This  may  be  done  by  coating  it  with  plaster, 
made  of  about  one  part  of  cement  to  two  parts 
of  sand.  The  sooner  the  plaster  is  put  on  after 
the  wall  has  set  sufficiently  to  permit  of  re- 
moval of  forms  the  better  it  w^ill  adhere. 

Another  finish  is  given  by  roughening  the 
^^'all  slightly,  thus  obliterating  the  marks  of  the 
form.  A  hammer  such  as  cooks  use  to  bruise 
beefsteak  may  be  struck  against  the  wall  enough 
slightly  to  roughen  it,  and  this  will  give  an  ef- 
fect that  will  appeal  to  the  artistic  eye  more  tlian 
will  smooth  plastering.  Plaster,  however,  if 
made  rich  will  make  the  wall  impervious  to 
water. 

KEEPING  WATER  OUT  OP  THE  BASEMENT. 

A  good  deal  of  disappointment  has  been  felt 
by  concrete  users  when  they  found  water  per- 
colating through  their  cellar  walls.  This  comes 
from  the  concrete  lying  so  close  to  the  clay  that 
it  dams  back  the  water  that  would  go  downward 
alongside  the  wall,  and  thus  it  gathers  head  and 


FIG.    384.       STUDDING    FOR    CONCRETE    WALL    FORMS. 


seeps  through  the  concrete.  It  is  especially  liable 
to  seep  where  the  work  of  one  day  joins  the  work 
of  the  previous  day,  or  at  any  point  where  the 
mixture  is  not  perfectly  made  or  well  compacted. 
Plastering  on  the  inside  is  not  a  sure  remedy 
and  plastering  on  the  outside  is  difficult  of  ac- 
complishment. Prevention  of  this  seepage  is 
simple.  The  foundation  should  be  dug  about  4" 
or  6"  wider  than  the  wall  requires,  and  as  con- 
crete is  put  in  a  board  may  be  set  up  limiting  the 
concrete  and  leaving  a  space  back  of  it  4"  to  6" 
or  more.  In  this  space  clean  gravel  or  coarse 
sand  is  put,  and  as  the  work  proceeds  this  board 
may  be  raised,  always  keeping  it  backed  with 
gravel.  It  is  immaterial  whether  the  back  of  the 
wall  is  very  smooth  or  not,  so  the  general  thick- 
ness is  preserved.  Surface  water  reaching  the 
wall  will  readily  sink  down  through  this  gravel 
and  reach  the  tiles,  leaving  the  cellar  or  base- 
ment quite  dry. 

HOLLOW    OR    SOLID    W^\.LLS. 

It  is  usual  to  make  basement  walls  solid  and 
house  walls,  or  walls  above  ground,  hollow.  Hol- 
low walls  are  drier  and  warmer  because  of  the 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


215 


air  space.  No  more  material  is  needed  in  the 
hollow  wall  than  in  the  solid  wall ;  it  is  divided. 
Concrete  is  immensely  strong  and  its  resistance 
to  crushing  is  so  great  that  no  account  need  be 
taken  of  this  in  any  walls  needed  about  the  farm. 
Factory  chimneys  350'  high  are  built  with  walls 
no  more  than  12"  thick  at  the  base  and  7"  thick 
above  the  first  100'. 

Hollow  walls  may  be  made  with  an  air  space 
of  8"  or  10"  and  the  two  walls  each  of  a  thick- 
ness of  3"  or  4".  These  thin  walls  should  be 
reinforced  with  iron  or  steel  wires  or  rods  laid 
at  intervals  of  about  8"  or  12"  horizontally  as 
the  work  proceeds,  and  if  some  such  rods  are 
put  in  vertically  at  intervals  of  24"  it  is  all  the 
better.  This  is  called  "reinforcing"  and  won- 
<lerfully  increases  the  strength  of  the  concrete. 
Wherever  there  is  to  be  pressure  against  con- 
crete walls  and  no  backing  is  behind  them  this 
reinforcing  should  be  remembered.  For  plain 
walls,  as  of  a  house  or  stable  or  poultry  build- 
ing where  no  special  pressure  is  to  be  encoun- 
tered, small  wires,  say  No,  8,  laid  straight,  will 
serve,  and  for  walls  where  there  is  more  pres- 
sure larger  rods  must  be  used.  Refer  to  some  of 
the  numerous  books  on  concrete  construction  and 
reinforcing  for  tables  that  give  exactly  the  vari- 
ous sizes  of  rods  needed  for  each  class  of  work, 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    HOLLOW    WALLS. 

There  is  little  more  material  used  in  the  hol- 
low wall,  and  little  more  labor  except  in  setting 
up  the  forms,  and  they  are  not  difficult.  The 
air  space  is  most  easily  made  a  wide  one,  as  then 
the  inner  forms  are  the  more  readily  taken  out. 
Building  outer  walls  3"  thick  (which  is  ample) 
and  an  air  space  of  about  10"  will  give  a  wall 
apparently  16"  thick,  which  has  a  substantial 
effect,  and  is  warm  in  winter.  To  accomplish 
tliis,  studdings  are  set  up  in  the  usual  manner, 
spaced  20"  apart  if  the  planks  of  the  forms  are 
to  be  2"  thick,  and  closer  if  thinner  stuff  is  used. 
These  studdings  should  be  carefully  plumbed, 
])raced  and  tied  together  at  the  bottom  with 
wires,  and  occasionally  through  the  middle,  to 
hold  them  absolutely  in  place.  The  tops  should 
be  held  with  a  short  board  nailed  across. 

The  collapsible  inner  form  is  made  by  setting 
up  short  studdings  2"x6"  (2"x4"  will  serve, 
but  are  not  so  easily  removed)  which  has  one 
edge  sharply  beveled  so  that  it  may  be  twisted 
around  and  loosened  without  difficulty.  These 
studdings  hold  apart  the  boards  of  the  inner 
form.  All  Avooden  parts  of  this  inner  form  should 
be  of  green  material  or  else  well  saturated  with 
water  before  using,  else  they  may  swell  and  hurt 
the  work,  besides  being  hard  to  loosen  and  take 
out.    See  Fig.  385. 

Planking  2''xl2"  is  best  for  the  inner  form 


and  it  may  be  raised  for  each  course.  The  two 
thin  walls  need  to  be  tied  together  and  this  is 
variously  accomplished.  An  easy  way  is  by  means 
of  bits  of  large  galvanized  wire,  about  No.  2,  with 
the  ends  turned  over.  These  pieces  of  wire  are 
Liid  across  from  one  wall  to  the  other  beneath  the 
plank  of  the  form.  They  tie  solidly  and  being 
cheap  may  be  put  in  at  intervals  of  about  24". 
It  is  better  to  put  in  three  sets  of  planking  and 
about  36"  of  this  double  wall  before  raising  the 
inner  form  as  a  smoother  outer  face  can  thus 
be  kept.  In  order  to  make  the  wall  very  strong 
and  safe,  vertical  wires  should  be  used  in  the 
thin  walls  which  will  effectually  prevent  any 
cracking,  even  by  earthquake.  Greater  height 
than  36"  without  raising  up  with  this  sort  of 
form  is  not  practicable.  There  is  another  bond 
sometimes  used,  and  a  good  one:  paving  brick 
or  any  hard  burned  bricks.  These  must  be  long 
enough  to  reach  across  and  rest  for  at  least  an 
inch  of  their  length  on  each  wall.  They  are  of 
course  imperishable  and  resist  thrusts  and  hold 
together. 

When  the  hollow  wall  has  reached  within  6" 
of  the  top  it  may  be  bridged  across  with  tiles, 
slate  or  sheet  iron,  taking  care  that  the  mate- 
rial does  not  cover  the  walls  more  than  half  way, 
and  the  finishing  top  should  be  made  solid. 

PUTTING  IN  DOOR  AND  WINDOW  FRAMES. 

The  frames  should  be  made  before  the  wall 
is  begun  and  they  may  be  set  in  place  as  the 
work  reaches  the  point  where  they  are  needed, 
letting  the  concrete  come  right  against  them; 
or,  rough  frames  a  little  larger  than  the  perma- 
nent ones  may  be  put  in  and  the  permanent 
frames  after  the  w^all  is  finished.  It  is  well  to 
nail  1"  X 1"  vertical  strips  on  the  frames  so 
placed  as  to  become  imbedded  in  the  concrete 
which  will  hold  them  secure  and  make  a  close 
fit. 

CONCRETE  OR   BLOCKS  FOR  WTALLS. 

A  hollow  concrete  wall,  constructed  as  out- 
lined, of  good  rich  concrete,  will  be  warmer  and 
drier  and  more  durable  than  a  wall  of  blocks 
as  they  are  commonly  made,  since  they  are  not 
often  made  rich  enough  or  wet  enough  to  make 
really  first-class  concrete.  The  cost  of  the  hol- 
low wall  will  probably  be  less  than  that  of  a 
wall  laid  up  of  blocks.  The  appearance  may 
easily  be  better.  A  plain  flat  wall,  slightly 
rough,  is  much  to  be  preferred  from  the  stand- 
point of  beauty. 

.CONCRETE    FOR    CHIMNEY    CAPS. 

Caps  for  chimneys  are  best  made  of  concrete. 
These  are  easily  built  in  place.  A  form  to  fit 
the  chimney  should  be  built  coming  out  about 


216 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


3"  wider  than  the  brick  and  the  edges  raising 
about  3".  At  the  flues  clay  tiling  should  pro- 
ject, or  else  galvanized  iron  cores,  since  wooden 
cores  will  swell  and  surely  crack  the  cap  before 
it  is  hard.  Give  the  cap  a  slope  to  throw  the 
water  to  the  outside. 

CONCRETE  FOR  PIERS  OR  FOUNDATION  STONES. 

One  of  the  most  convenient  uses  to  which  con- 
crete may  be  put  is  for  small  piers  to  set  under 
the  posts  of  barns,  stables  or  corncribs.  These 
are  molded  in  place  in  a  fraction  of  the  time 
recjuired  to  place  and  bed  natural  stone,  and 
the  tops  are  readily  leveled  with  much  exactness. 
To  make  these  piers  the  surface  soil  should  be 
'excavated  to  solid  earth,  digging  a  hole  accu- 
rately of  the  size  that  the  pier  is  desired,  say 
24"  square.  Fill  it  with  concrete  to  the  level  of 
the  surface  and  from  that  height  a  tapering  form 
like  a  truncated  pyramid  is  used  to  the  level  de- 
sired.   If  the  post  resting  on  a  pier  is  to  be,  say, 


CONCRETE  FOR  PORCH   COLUMNS. 

Columns  for  porches  and  porte-cocheres  of 
country  homes  may  be  made  of  concrete  with 
great  economy  of  first  cost  and  immense  gain  in 
durability  and  cost  of  repair.  The  molds  for 
these  may  be  cheaply  constructed  by  sawing  half 
circles  from  tough  boards  and  nailing  to  the 
inner  side  of  these  segments  pine  strips  about  an 
inch  square.  With  tapered  columns  these  strips 
will  be  slightly  tapered  to  make  them  fit.  Bases, 
if  turned,  may  be  first  molded  in  plaster  of 
paris  to  make  the  forms,  and  capitals  in  the  same 
manner.  The  columns  should  be  cast  standing 
on  their  bases,  the  two  parts  of  the  mold  well 
wired  together,  since  the  pressure  of  wet  con- 
crete is  very  great  at  a  height  of  8'  or  more.  A 
rich  mixture  should  be  used  rather  wet,  and  well 
agitated  with  a  slender  stick  to  cause  air  bubbles 
to  come  to  the  surface.  A  core  of  steel  is  useful, 
though  not  indispensable,  but  there  should  be  a 


FIG.     385.       CONSTRUCTION    OF    CONCRETE     WALL    FORMS. 


8"  X  8",  the  top  of  the  pier  may  be  made  of  that 
size,  or,  allowing  somewhat  for  inaccurate  placing, 
12"  X  12"  may  be  the  top,  and  the  bottom  may 
be  16"  X  16",  wdth  a  uniform  taper.  In  this  con- 
crete block  should  be  molded  a  bolt,  say  of  %" 
iron,  about  8"  long,  of  which  6"  will  be  imbedded 
in  the  concrete  and  2"  will  project.  A  piece  of 
2"  joist  of  tough,  durable  wood  may  now  be 
sawn  to  fit  the  top  of  the  concrete  block  and  a 
hole  bored  in  it  to  admit  the  iron  pin.  Upon 
this  the  post  will  rest  and  to  this  block  the  post 
may  be  toe-nailed  with  spikes,  thus  making  a 
very  good  attachment  to  the  base.  Or,  if  there 
is  any  chance  of  the  post  lifting  off,  a  longer  bolt 
may  be  used  with  head  imbedded  in  the  concrete 
and  thread  on  its  upper  end.  Thus,  by  cutting 
a  slot  in  the  post  to  admit  of  a  nut  the  post  may 
be  solidly  bolted  to  the  base.  Foundation  blocks 
should  always  be  made  of  rich  concrete,  say  of 
1  to  5  if  gravel  is  used,  or  1  to  3  if  sand  and  5 
if  crushed  stone,  or  whatever  has  been  found  to 
make  a  strong,  dense  concrete  with  the  material 
available. 


34"  bolt  inserted  that  will  project  through  the 
top  and  engage  the  superincumbent  woodwork. 
These  columns  will  not  need  much  finishing 
after  the  forms  are  taken  off;  should  there  be  a 
rough  appearance  it  may  be  made  smooth  by  this 
method.  As  soon  as  the  forms  are  taken  off  and 
while  there  is  yet  considerable  moisture  in  the 
columns  moisten  them  more  and  when  the  water 
has  sunk  in  so  that  it  cannot  be  actually  seen 
on  the  surface  take  the  bare  hand  half  full  of 
cement  and,  beginning  at  the  bottom,  draw  it 
carefully  upward,  letting  what  cement  adhere 
that  naturally  does  and  wipe  off  all  surplus.  This 
fills  all  airholes  and  makes  a  smooth  appearance 
with  very  little  time  or  material.  Porch  columns 
may  also  be  made  square  and  this  form  looks  ex- 
ceedingly well ;  let  them  be  of  generous  size,  say 
for  a  one-story  porch  18"  x  18"  and  for  a  two- 
story  porch  30"  X  30". 

CONCRETE  FOR  CORNCRIB  FOUNDATIONS. 

To  make  rat-proof  corncrib  foundations  first 
mold  blocks  of  concrete  in  the  ground  and  set 
on  them  cylinders  made  of  galvanized  iron,  about 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


217 


8"  in  diameter  at  the  top  and  12"  at  the  bot- 
tom and  24"  long.  If  thought  best  this  length 
may  be  reduced  to  16"  or  18",  though  absolute 
security  from  rats  cannot  be  had  with  a  much 
less  height  than  24".  Fill  these  cylinders  with 
rich  concrete  and  when  it  is  hard  set  the  crib 
upon  them.  A  %"  or  %"  rod  running  up 
through  the  bottom  block  and  the  middle  of  the 
cylinder  will  insure  rigidity  of  union.  See  Figs. 
420  and  421. 

CONCRETE  FOR  FENCE  POSTS. 

"With  the  price  of  lumber  constantly  increas- 
ing and  the  price  of  cement  decreasing  the  time 
is  near  at  hand  when  cement  will  be  used  for  a 
great  many  things  on  the  farm  which  are  now 
considered  either  impossible  or  very  doubtful. 

The  cement  fence  post  is  as  yet  in  an  experi- 
mental stage,  and  no  generalization,  therefore, 
can  be  made  that  would  apply  to  all  cases.  The 
posts  are  usually  made  in  some  form  of  impro- 
vised mold,  out  of  a  mixture  of  1  part  of  ce- 
ment to  from  4  to  7  parts  of  sand,  the  best  ratio 
having  not  as  yet  been  determined.  All  cement 
posts  have  some  kind  of  reinforcement  to  keep 
them  from  breaking.  This  may  be  either  wood, 
gas-pipe  or  wire,  which  is  imbedded  in  the  post. 
If  wire  is  used  there  is  usually  one  wire  placed 
about  one  inch  from  either  corner  as  the  post 
is  being  made,  the  holes  or  cross-wires  put  in 
to  fasten  the  fence  wires  or  boards  to  the  posts. 

The  post  as  well  as  all  other  cement  work  im- 
proves with  age  up  to  a  certain  limit  and  no  posts 
should  be  used  until  six  months  after  they  have 
been  made.  From  our  observations  so  far  we 
would  say  that  concrete  fence  posts  as  now  manu- 
factured are  necessarily  very  heavy,  which  makes 
them  inconvenient  to  handle;  quite  brittle  and 
sensitive  to  sudden  jar,  necessitating  a  high 
fence  with  posts  much  closer  together  than  in 
case  of  good  wooden  posts,  and  lacking  in  best 
arrangement  for  fastening  of  wire  and  especially 
boards  upon  them  when  set  up  in  the  field. 

We  have  tested  some  cement  posts,  very  prom- 
ising according  to  the  recommendations  given 
them  by  their  makers.  They  were  declared  to 
be  ' '  stronger  than  wooden  posts ' '  and  ' '  lasting  as 
the  Pyramids  of  Egypt."  Here  are  the  results 
of  actual  tests : 

Cement  post  No.  1— A  post  3V>"x834"  at 
lower  and  21/2"  x  3"  at  the  top  end,  6'  6"  long, 
reinforced  with  three  pairs  of  twisted  wire. 
Test  1 — Post  supported  horizontally  9"  from 
each  end,  and  weight  applied  in  middle,  strain- 
ing the  two  wires  or  the  stronger  side  of  post. 
Total  weight,  701%  pounds ;  total  deflection,  15' 
32" ;  breaking  weight,  7731/4  pounds. 

Test  2 — Post  supported  as  above  but  strain 
applied  on  the  one  wire  or  the  staple  side  of 


post.  Total  weight,  474%  pounds;  total  deflec- 
tion, 15'  16" ;  breaking  weight,  544%  pounds. 

Test  3 — Lower  end  of  post  fastened  horizon- 
tally in  clamp,  and  weights  applied  3'  10"  from 
support,  straining  the  staple  side  of  post.  Total 
weight,  1681/4  pounds;  total  deflection,  43^4"; 
breaking  load,  17814  pounds. 

Test  4 — Post  fastened  as  in  previous  test,  but 
weight  dropped,  straining  the  stronger  side  of 
post.  Post  cracked  when  40  pounds  were  dropped 
20".    Cracks  open  14"  when  drop  repeated. 

A  common  round  cedar  post  was  tested,  but 
it  did  not  break  at  395  pounds  with  deflection 
of  only  2".  However,  by  working  out  the  for- 
mula for  strength  of  different  materials  we  would 
get  the  following  results  for  different  posts  of 
wood  of  like  dimensions  as  cement  post  No.  1, 
submitted  to  similar  test  as  in  3 :  Breaking  load 
of  white  ash  post,  1,450  pounds;  breaking  load 
of  white  oak  post,  1,340  pounds;  breaking  load 
of  poplar  post,  1.330  pounds;  breaking  load  of 
white  pine  post,  1,000  pounds. 

Cement  post  No.  2 — A  post  4"  x  4"  at  lower 
and  3"  x  3"  at  top  end,  6'  6"  long,  reinforced 
by  four  pairs  of  twisted  wire.  Test  1 — Post 
fastened  horizontally  in  clamp  and  weights  ap- 
plied 3'  10"  from  support:  (a)  weight  83 
pounds,  cracks  appear;  weight  160  pounds,  8 
distinct,  3  partial  cracks ;  weight  197  pounds,  10 
distinct,  3  partial  cracks;  weight  237  pounds, 
cracks  open ;  weight  300  pounds,  post  breaks. 
(b)  weight  230  pounds,  breaks  a  post ;  (c)  weight 
345  pounds,  breaks  another  post.  This  makes 
an  average  breaking  strength  of  292  pounds. 

Test  2 — Post  fastened  as  above  but  weight 
dropped  upon  post  3' .  10"  from  clamp :  (a) 
weight  83  pounds,  drop  15",  post  cracked;  (b) 
weight  40  pounds,  drop  2',  post  cracked;  (c) 
weight  40  pounds,  drop  1',  post  cracked.  This 
makes  an  average  of  52.6  pounds  dropped  16.4", 
sufficient  to  crack  the  post. 

Test  3 — Cracked  post  (c)  tested  for  breaking 
drop  load.  Weight  80  pounds,  drop  1',  5  cracks ; 
weight  80  pounds,  drop  2',  break  at  clamp.  To 
fully  realize  the  meaning  of  Test  1,  let  us  see 
what  a  wooden  post  of  like  dimensions  would  do 
when  submitted  to  similar  test :  Breaking  load 
of  white  ash  post,  2,230  pounds;  breaking  load 
of  white  oak  post,  2,060  pounds;  breaking  load 
of  poplar  post,  1,890  pounds;  breaking  load  of 
white  pine  post,  1,540  pounds. 

These  tests  show  that  white  pine  is  five  times 
as  strong  as  the  cement  posts  tested  for  steady 
load,  while  for  sudden  jar  there  is  simply  no  com- 
parison. 

We  would  very  much  like  to.  know  what  is  the 
actual  pressure  to  which  fence  posts  in  the  field 
are  subjected  and  how  often  new  posts  are  broken 
by  animals  running  against  them,  as  this  is  the 


218 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


only  practical  comparison  between  the  strength 
of  cement  and  wooden  posts. 

The  foregoing  tests  should  not  discourage  any- 
one who  intends  to  make  his  own  cement  posts. 
If  there  is  plenty  of  sand  and  gravel  to  be  had 
nearby  every  farmer  short  of  wood  should  be 
his  own  manufacturer  of  fence  posts. 

The  question  arises,  Can  a  farmer  manufac- 
ture for  his  own  use  a  fence  post  which  has  been 
patented  ?  If  he  has  seen  and  has  had  explained 
to  him  a  certain  patented  process  of  fence  post 
construction  and  he  deliberately  goes  to  work 
and  imitates  this  process  he  is  liable  for  dam- 
ages. However,  there  is  nothing  to  hinder  a 
farmer  from  making  fence  posts  according  to  his 
own  process  without  infringing  on  the  rights  of 
anyone,  for  it  is  their  own  peculiar  method  of 
making  and  reinforcing  that  some  individuals 
have  patented  and  in  which  they  are  protected 
by  law. 

Joseph  E,  Wing  says:  '^I  believe  we  have  in 
cement  a  very  hopeful  material  to  replace  the  fast 
vanishing  supply  of  wood.     I  regret  that  men 


fl6.1 


mi  ^ 


I.  ,„f...''..V.I-,./.n,f.'K-.. 


F16^ 


f..Y'.fM<,,..r...,.i,>>./j..it,.>.ir,m.,/'..U. 


FIG.     3S6.       REINFORCED    CEMENT    POST. 

have  tried  to  build  concrete  posts  of  exceedingly 
small  size.  In  my  opinion  none  should  be  less 
than  5"  x  5"  and  it  would  not  cost  so  very  much 
to  increase  the  size  at  the  bottom  to  6"  x  6". 

^^Fig.  386  (left  side)  represents  a  small  post 
for  attaching  wire  or  boards.  It  is  5"  x  5"  and 
made  in  a  plain  wooden  box  form.  Four  feet  of 
this  box  form  will  be  open  and  when  it  is  to  be 
used  a  pine  board  through  which  three  bolts 
have  been  passed  and  nuts  put  on  them  closes 
this  opening,  which  will  be  in  the  bottom.  The 
form  lays  with  this  board  in  the  under  side,  the 


bolt  heads  projecting  up  into  the  form  half  way 
or  more.  Fill  the  form  half  full,  then  put  in  it 
an  iron  rod  of  some  sort,  either  the  specially  cor- 
rugated bars  made  for  the  purpose  of  about  I/2" 
diameter  or  a  straight  piece  of  wire  about  No.  0 
size  or  larger.  One  can  buy  wire  cut  and 
straightened  to  any  length  at  a  very  reasonable 
figure,  and  I  do  not  know  that  it  needs  to  be 
galvanized  for  this  purpose. 

"Lay  in  the  metal,  then  finish  filling  the 
mould,  smoothing  off  the  top  nicely ;  let  it  set  24 
hours  and  very  carefully  remove  the  form,  leav- 
ing it  rest  on  the  board  without  moving  it.  That 
will  take  for  a  post  7'  long  1  1-15  cubic  feet  of 
concrete,  costing  about  12  cents;  say  the  metal 
costs  5  cents  and  the  board  5  cents  and  the  3  bolts 
3  cents,  you  have  a  cost  for  materials  of  25  cents. 
The  labor  would  cost  about  3  cents,  I  suppose, 
and  wear  and  tear  of  forms  somewhat.  One 
would  need  about  10  forms  and  take  an  hour  a 
day  to  fill  them;  in  a  week  or  two  he  would  ac- 
cumulate quite  a  supply  of  posts. 

' '  The  forms  would  be  held  together  by  sawing 
a  square  notch  in  a  2"  x  10"  plank  or  by  iron 
clamps.  The  metal  should  turn  over  half  an  inch 
at  each  end.  Be  sure  that  it  is  of  good  size,  as 
in  it  lies  the  strength  of  the  post.  It  is  desirable 
to  make  posts  that  shall  endure  for  centuries, 
for  fence  repairing  is  no  small  part  of  our  work. 
After  a  post  is  moulded  comes  the  care  of  it. 
It  must  be  kept  moist  for  10  days  by  daily 
sprinkling.  Water  is  a  component  part  of  con- 
crete, and  if  ever  it  dries  out  before  the  chem- 
ical union  takes  place  it  will  never  get  its  due 
strength. 

' '  But  it  is  in  the  gate  post  that  I  have  invented 
that  I  take  especial  pride.  Dig  the  hole  neatly 
and  not  larger  than  about  12"  in  diameter  but 
at  least  Sy^'  deep.  I  think  telephone  men  dig 
4'.  Take  the  earth  clear  away,  as  none  of  it 
will  be  needed.  Dig  a  narrow  trench,  say  5" 
wide  and  8"  deep,  and  6'  long  across  the  hole, 
and  another  one  in  the  transverse  direction,  so 
that  the  hole  will  be  in  the  center  of  a  cross. 

"Eight  where  these  trenches  join  the  large  hole 
widen  them  an  inch  or  two.  Get  a  piece  of  old 
buggy  axle,  or  about  7'  of  1^  V'  or  2"  pipe.  If 
it  is  not  quite  long  enough  to  come  nearly  to  the 
top  of  the  post  and  reach  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
shovel  in  and  tamp  some  concrete  to  put  under 
it,  though  it  should  reach  nearly  to  each  end  of 
the  post.  Set  it  up  and  tamp  concrete  about  it, 
being  sure  to  tamp  well  and  that  the  concrete  is 
well  mixed  and  of  good  proportions,  it  being  Ijet- 
ter  to  use  too  much  cement  than  too  little.  When 
up  to  the  trenches  put  2i/^"  of  concrete  in  them 
and  lay  down  in  each  one  a  rod  of  say  V/  ii'on 
or  twisted  wire  cable  or  a  piece  of  old  inch  pipe, 
letting  them  run  right  across  the  center  of  the 


CONCRETE   COl^'ST RUCTION. 


219 


post ;  then  go  on  filling  till  the  top  of  the  ground 
is  reached  and  the  trenches  as  well  as  the  hole 
are  full.  Now  set  up  the  form,  which  may  be  of 
two  boards,  1"  x  12"  and  two  1"  x  10",  which 
will  make  a  square  post  10"  x  10",  or  it  may  be 
a  round  form  in  halves. 

' '  The  hinges  should  be  inserted  in  the  soft  ce- 
ment and  it  is  doubtless  better  that  they  should 
run  clear  through,  as  shown  in  Fig.  386  (right 
side).  Let  the  posts  set  for  30  days  before  you 
touch  them.  Concrete  reaches  nearly  its  maxi- 
mum strength  in  45  days.  The  fence  posts  if 
laid  close  together  and  covered  with  moist  sand 
will  cure  out  best ;  the  sand  may  be  wet  down 
now  and  then. 

"This  post  will  cost  very  little  more  than  a 
good  wooden  one  and  will  absolutely  last  a  cen- 
tury. It  cannot  possibly  get  away  unless  the 
bottom  of  the  post  is  in  soft  ground ;  if  in  digging 
the  hole  you  do  not  find  hard  earth  at  one  depth 
go  on  until  you  do  find  it." 

CONCRETE  FOR  FLOORS. 

Concrete  is  an  ideal  flooring  for  porches,  cel- 
lars, meat  houses,  wash  houses,  and  summer 
kitchens.  Porch  floors  may  be  laid  either  with 
or  without  filling  in  beneath  them.  If  the  fill- 
ing is  done  the  gravel  or  earth  should  be  care- 
fully tamped  and  solidified,  else  in  settling  it 
will  leave  the  concrete  unsupported  and  it  may 
crack  and  drop  out  of  level.  A  better  concrete 
floor  for  porches  is  made  by  reinforcing  the  con- 
crete and  supporting  it  only  on  the  walls.  It 
may  easily  span  8'  or  10'  and  if  need  be  may 
span  12',  though  in  porch  work  it  is  cheaper  to 
build  a  very  thin  cross  wall  under  porches  as 
wide  as  12',  thus  dividing  the  span  in  two. 

To  build  a  reinforced  floor  a  temporary  floor- 
ing of  wood  is  laid  down  and  over  it  is  laid  a 
network  of  steel  rods  or  large  wires  which  should 
be  raised  an  inch  so  as  to  permit  the  concrete  to 
cover  them  on  the  under  side.  The  size  and  fre- 
quency of  these  rods  must  be  proportioned  to 
the  width  of  span  and  probable  load  to  carry. 
For  spans  of  8'  a  safe  proportion  of  steel  and 
concrete  is  to  use  %"  steel  rods,  spacing  them 
51/^"  apart  and  having  them  imbedded  about 
%"  in  the  concrete  (of  course  on  the  under 
side)  and  the  slab  of  concrete  may  be  4"  thick. 
If  it  is  thicker  it  will  be  somewhat  stronger,  but 
these  proportions  are  recommended  by  engineers 
for  a  floor  to  bear  a  load  of  50  pounds  per  square 
foot.  For  a  stronger  floor,  carrying  safely  125 
pounds  per  square  foot,  the  proportions  should 
be  a  slab  5"  thick,  a  i/>"  rod  imbedded  1"  and 
spaced  7^4"  apart.  This  also  for  the  8'  span.  If 
wider  spans  than  8'  are  desired  the  builder  had 
best  consult  some  maker  of  reinforcing  steel  and 
learn  the  proportions. 


To  lay  the  floor,  make  a  rich  concrete,  cer- 
tainly richer  than  would  be  used  in  a  wall,  and 
spread  it  over  the  temporary  flooring,  having  it 
rather  wet  so  that  it  can  readily  be  made  to 
flow  around  the  metal  reinforcement.  Tamp  it 
gently  with  a  broad-faced  tamper.  Lay  it  down 
and  at  once  put  on  a  top  coat  of  about  1"  or 
li/^"  of  screened  material,  say  of  sharp  sand  2 
parts,  cement  1.  Trowel  this  to  a  smooth  sur- 
face. The  final  troweling  must  be  given  just 
as  the  work  sets,  when  with  care  a  very  smooth 
surface  may  be  made.  Do  not  remove  the  sup- 
porting boards  until  30  days.  Porch  floors  need 
not  be  blocked  off  if  they  are  reinforced  with 
metal,  since  the  cracks,  if  any,  will  be  small.  To 
bring  the  work  to  a  level  while  building  it  is  well 
to  set  up  boards  on  edge  with  the  top  edge  at  the 
level,  or  slightly  below  the  level,  of  the  required 
height  of  the  floor.  Then  a  straightedge  may 
be  drawn  across  the  work,  sawing  it  back  and 
forth  and  leveling  the  concrete,  removing  any 
surplus.  If  this  is  done  with  the  body  of  the 
work  the  finishing  coat  may  be  put  on  evenly 
and  with  care  the  same  process  of  leveling  may 
be  done  without  the  aid  of  the  boards,  which  of 
course  must  be  removed  and  their  places  filled 
as  soon  as  their  use  is  ended. 

If  porch  floors  are  built  resting  on  a  filling  of 
earth  or  gravel  without  reinforcement  they 
should  be  laid  in  blocks.  This  is  best  accom- 
plished by  making  partitions  across  the  floor, 
using  1"  boards,  or  heavier,  and  making  squares 
of  about  4'.  Fill  each  alternate  square,  like  the 
Avhite  spots  in  a  checker  board;  let  it  set;  then 
remove  the  wood  and  fill  in  the  remaining 
spaces.  To  keep  the  concrete  from  adhering 
paper  may  be  used  to  separate  the  blooks. 

CONCRETE   FOR    CELLAR   FLOORS. 

Concrete  floors  in  cellars  may  be  laid  directly 
upon  the  clay,  if  it  is  dry,  and,  if  there  is  dan- 
ger of  water,  cinders,  gravel  or  broken  stone  may 
be  laid  down  first  and  the  concrete  spread  upon 
it.  Cellar  floors  should  have  a  slope  to  one  side 
and  a  depression  along  that  wall,  forming  a 
shallow  ditch  with  grade  running  to  a  drain  at 
the  corner.  A  thickness  of  2"  or  3"  is  ample  in 
a  cellar  floor  and  it  need  not  be  blocked  off  since 
it  Avill  hardly  crack  seriously.  To  get  it  to  uni- 
form surface  use  boards  in  putting  it  down  as 
directed  for  porch  floors.  Cellar  floors  should  be 
troweled  smooth,  and  have  a  good  top  coat  to  re- 
sist wear. 

BARN  FLOORS. 

Barn  floors  should  always  be  of  concrete  where 
they  may  rest  upon  the  ground,  since  they  are 
cheaper  than  wood,  and  imperishable;  besides 
they  do  not  harbor  vermin.  Barn  floors  may  be 
laid  in  squares  as  directed  for  porch  floors,  or  all 


220 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ill  one  piece,  which  will  be  apt  to  crack  somewhat. 
The  cracks,  while  irregular,  may  not  do  any 
harm,  and  after  they  have  opened  to  their  maxi- 
mum size  may  be  filled  with  dry  cement  powder 
and  wetted.  Where  teams  are  to  stand  upon 
floors  they  should  be  5"  thick,  and  along  drive- 
ways where  heavy  loads  must  be  drawn  they 
should  be  cut  across  in  squares  of  about  6", 
deeply  marked  so  as  to  give  horses  a  secure  foot- 
hold. 

CONCRETE  FEEDING   AND   BARNYARD   FLOORS. 

Humphrey  Jones  of  Ohio  has  built  an  eco- 
nomical barnyard  floor  by  first  enclosing  the 
yard  with  a  ditch  in  which  tile  is  laid.  The 
yard  is  then  leveled  and  solidified  and  2"  of 
concrete  laid  down.  On  this,  while  soft,  is  laid 
steel  fencing  of  the  s^pare  mesh  woven  variety, 
which  serves  as  an  excellent  reinforcing  mate- 
rial, and  on  this  is  laid  2"  more  of  concrete. 
Thus  4"  of  concrete  with  no  foundation  but  the 
natural  earth  serves  to  hold  as  perfectly  as 
though  it  were  very  much  heavier  and  not  rein- 
forced.    Where  the  ditch  comes  he  has  made  a 


Some  concrete  floors  are  very  slippery.  This 
is  the  result  of  unnecessary  troweling.  It  is  in- 
deed necessary  to  trowel  the  top  coat,  but  if  ani- 
mals are  to  walk  upon  it  without  bedding  it  must 
not  be  left  smooth.  It  may  be  roughened  by  draw- 
ing across  it  a  coarse  wooden  comb,  such  as  is 
used  for  currying  horses,  or  by  using  a  piece  of 
notched  steel  like  a  coarse  rip  saw  blade.  Slip- 
pery floors  may  be  corrected  by  cleaning  them 
thoroughly,  scraping  a  little,  and  sprinkling  with 
water,  then  dusting  well  with  cement,  and  rough- 
ening with  a  comb,  or  even  with  a  very  coarse 
l)rush. 

CONCRETE    FOR    STABLE    FLOORS. 

Stable  floors  should  be  laid  with  a  descent  to 
permit  them  to  drain  to  a  common  center,  but 
for  stalls  the  slant  should  not  be  excessive ;  2" 
in  8'  will  suffice.  They  need  not  exceed  5"  in 
thickness  and  may  be  laid  in  one  piece  or  in 
blocks.  Drops  for  cow  stables  need  not  be  more 
than  5"  and  from  the  walk  to  the  gutter  may 
well  be  a  simple  slope  instead  of  the  gutter  once 
commonly  in  use.     {Fig.  387.) 


/^seop/Tss/i^e       /^/7frt^£-^ 


J/^Of£-    ^- 


FIG.     387.       COXCRETE     STALL     FLOOR      (SECTION). 


thin  concrete  wall,  depending  from  the  edge, 
the  idea  being  in  part  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  water  beneath  the  concrete  and  in  part  to  pre- 
vent the  edge  being  gradually  broken  off  by 
driving  over  it  in  wet  times.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  a  concrete  floor  well  made  of 
pretty  rich  cement  laid  comparatively  thin  is 
much  to  be  preferred  to  a  very  thick  one  laid 
with  poor  concrete  that  may  soon  go  to  pieces 
from  the  effects  of  weather  and  natural  wear. 

MISTAKES  IN   CONCRETE  FLOORING. 

Sometimes  the  upper  surfacing  of  concrete 
floors  comes  loose  from  the  body  of  the  work. 
This  is  usually  the  result  of  using  too  poor  ma- 
terial below,  or  else  of  letting  the  lower  body 
set  too  long  before  the  top  coat  is  put  on,  or  else 
of  not  pressing  the  top  coat  down  hard  enough. 
It  should  be  laid  on  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
bottom  coat  so  that  setting  may  proceed  at  the 
same  time. 


Mangers  in  many  of  the  best  cow  barns  are 
of  concrete  and  are  sometimes  arranged  so  that 
water  may  be  turned  in  them  either  for  clean- 
ing or  for  drinking  purposes.  This  is  hardly  a 
desirable  practice,  however,  since  if  a  cow  were 
diseased  she  might  contaminate  the  entire  row 
by  means  of  the  water  flowing  past  her.  The 
floor  of  the  feed  passage  in  front  of  the  cows 
may  well  be  of  concrete,  and  there  is  no  objec- 
tion to  the  cows  eating  from  the  floor  of  this 
passage  with  no  back  to  their  manger,  since 
cows  pull  material  towards  them,  and  any  scat- 
tered forage  may  readily  be  pushed  up  to  them 
and  the  manger  may  readily  be  swept  out.  The 
use  of  concrete  in  these  instances  is  a  great  sav- 
ing of  dirt  and  prevents  the  ravages  of  rats  and 
mice. 

CONCRETE  FOR  HORSE  STALLS. 

Concrete  is  hardly  so  desirable  for  horse  stalls 
as  for  cow  stalls,  yet  it  is  far  preferable  to  wood. 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


221 


and  unless  hard  clay  is  used  there  is  nothing 
else  available.  Horse  stalls  should  be  kept  well 
littered  with  straw  or  shredded  corn,  stover 
when  the  only  objection  to  it  (its  hardness) 
disappears.  Horse  stalls  must  not  be  left  smooth 
and  slippery,  nor  must  cow  stalls  or  walks.  The 
problem  of  draining  horse  stalls  is  a  vexing  one ; 
no  blind  or  covered  drain  will  keep  open  long 
and  all  such  emit  a  fierce  odor.  Perhaps  as  good 
as  any  is  a  single  trench  about  3"  deep  and  of 
the  same  width,  or,  better,  only  2"  wide.  This 
of  course  must  be  cleaned  out  frequently,  but 
that  is  easily  done  and  there  is  no  fear  of  its 
permanent  stoppage,  nor  can  a  horse  get  his  foot 
fast  in  it.  or  slip  in  it.  This  drain  should  lead 
to  a  manure  pit  where  practicable  and  the  liquids 
be  absorbed  by  the  dry  parts  of  the  manure.  If 
sufficient  absorbents  are  used  there  will  not  be 
much  urine  to  drain  away. 

In  putting  down  stable  floors  all  posts  must 
first  be  set.  Posts  of  large  iron  pipe  are  now 
much  in  use ;  for  horse  stalls  the  pipe  should  be 
about  3"  in  diameter;  for  cows  2".  If  wood  is 
used  it  may  be  set  in  the  ground,  concrete  encas- 
ing it  from  the  bottom  to  the  surface ;  then  if  it 
decays  another  post  may  be  slipped  into  the  same 
socket. 

CONCRETE   FOR   HOGHOUSES. 

All  first-class  modern  hoghouses  make  large 
use  of  concrete,  both  for  floors  of  pens  and  al- 
leys, for  inside  partitions  and  for  troughs  and 
outside  yards  for  exercising.  There  is  no  objec- 
tion to  concrete  in  the  hoghouse  if  the  sleeping 
pens  are  kept  well  bedded  and  the  walking  sur- 
faces are  left  rough  enough  to  prevent  slipping. 
Concrete  partitions  in  hoghouses  need  not  be 
more  than  2"  thick,  but  should  be  well  reinforced 
with  about  No.  6  steel  wire.  The  black  wire 
serves  as  well  as  the  galvanized  since  concrete  is 
supposed  to  protect  wire  from  rusting. 

CONCRETE  FOR  WATERING  TROUGHS. 

Cement  makes  an  ideal  watering  trough  for 
all  sorts  of  animals.  It  is  indestructible,  once 
rightly  made,  is  easily  cleaned,  and  has  a  ten- 
dency to  keep  the  water  pure  and  sweet.  Small 
"watering  troughs  with  thin  sides  should  be  well 
reinforced ;  large  ones  need  it  less,  but  metal  re- 
inforcement adds  strength  to  any  form  of  con- 
crete. To  build  a  concrete  watering  trough  that 
at  the  same  time  may  serve  in  part  as  a  storage 
tank,  remove  the  loose  surface  earth  for  say  6", 
to  a  greater  depth  if  it  is  not  desired  completely 
to  drink  the  water  out  of  the  trough.  "With 
horses  and  cattle  there  is  no  harm  to  have  a 
depth  of  water ;  with  lambs  it  may  be  a  different 
matter.  It  is  safer  to  go  down  a  foot  or  so  with 
the  foundation,  but  it  is  costly  to  fill  up  with 
concrete  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  when 


permissible  water  is  the  cheapest  filler  of  a  tank. 
Have  ready  a  drain  for  the  overflow.  This 
should  extend  into  the  area  of  the  tank.  Have 
ready  also  the  inlet  to  the  tank.  This  may  be 
by  means  of  a  pipe  entering  from  the  bottom 
and  projecting  above  the  level  of  the  highest  sur- 
face of  water  that  will  ever  stand  in  the  tank. 
The  overflow  is  best  managed  thus :  let  the  union 
coupling  of  a  2"  pipe  come  at  the  level  of  the 
concrete  floor,  connecting  below  with  the  drain. 
Into  this  union  screw  a  short  length  of  pipe,  so 
short  that  water  will  flow  into  its  open  end  and 
down  to  the  drain  before  it  will  overflow  the 
sides  of  the  tank.  To  empty  the  tank  completely 
it  is  only  necessary  to  unscrew  this  short  pipe, 
when  all  the  water  will  run  away. 

To  build  the  form  for  a  concrete  tank  is  a 
simple  matter.  First  build  the  outer  form, 
which  is  a  box  as  large  as  the  tank  is  desired. 
A  good  size  for  a  horse  or  cattle  watering  trough 
where  some  storage  is  also  desired  is  6'  wide  and 
1 2'  long,  or  it  may  be  in  square  form,  8'  x  8'  or 
6'  X  6',  or  a  longer  or  shorter  to  fit  peculiar  situa- 
tions. The  height  may  be  36".  This  form  may 
be  of  inch  lumber,  well  braced  from  the  outside 
so  that  it  cannot  spread.  After  the  6"  thick- 
ness of  foundation  or  tank  bottom  is  put  in  this 
form  is  set  over  it  and  an  inner  form  within 
that.  The  inner  form  is  not  quite  so  easily 
made,  since  it  should  taper  so  as  to  be  smaller 
at  the  bottom,  much  as  a  mill  hopper  tapers. 
IMake  it,  if  the  outer  form  is  6'  x  12'  inside 
measure,  to  be  5'  2",  outside  measure  at  the 
top,  and  11'  2"  long,  which  will  make  the  top 
edge  of  the  tank  wall  5"  thick.  The  bottom  of 
the  inner  form  will  be  4'  wide,  outside  measure, 
and  10'  long.  This  will  make  the  bottom  of  the 
wall  12"  thick,  and  this  taper  is  needed  to  add 
strength  of  the  walls  when  ice  forms  in  the 
tank.  It  is  wise  to  brace  the  inner  form  across 
from  side  to  side.  Then  fill  between  these  forms, 
laying  in  a  course  of  wires  about  once  in  6", 
earr;ying  them  around  the  corners.  Do  not  use 
barbed  wire  unless  it  is  some  old  wire  that  you 
wish  to  hide,  since  it  is  inconvenient  to  handle 
and  holds  no  better  in  the  concrete  than  smooth 
wire.  Take  out  the  inner  form  in  24  hours  and 
wash  the  inside  of  the  tank  with  cement  and 
water  as  thick  as  cream.  Let  the  outer  form  re- 
main on  for  a  week.  Fill  the  tank  with  water 
when  the  cement  wash  is  hard  enough  to  bear 
it.  say  after  24  hours.  The  outside  of  the  tank 
will  hardly  need  any  attention.  Use  good  mix- 
tures in  tank  building,  say  of  cement  and  gravel 
1  to  4  to  5. 

Do  not  build  water  tanks  near  the  approach 
of  freezing  weather,  since  frost  may  ruin  them, 
even  after  they  are  set.  They  should  have  at 
least  30  days  before  being  frozen. 


222 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


BUILDING  LARGE  COMBINED  TANKS. 

There  is  a  type  of  tank  of  large  diameter  and 
moderate  height  from  which  animals  may  drink 
that  is  economical  to  build  and  effective.  It  is 
best  built  upon  a  clay  foundation,  or  on  some 
soil  that  will  become  water-tight  by  puddling, 
since  these  tanks  are  often  built  with  no  concrete 
bottoms.  They  are  best  made  circular,  the  size 
may  be  20',  30'  or  more  in  diameter;  the  larger 
the  more  easily  the  forms  are  made.  To  build 
them  drive  a  stake  into  the  earth,  put  a  nail 
in  the  top  of  it  and  with  a  string  describe  a  circle 
the  size  of  the  required  tank.  Excavate  a  very 
narrow  trench,  down  to  solid  earth,  which  may 
not  need  be  more  than  12".  Fill  this  trench 
with  concrete.  It  need  not  be  wider  than  6", 
but  should  be  filled  with  good,  rich  stuff.  To 
set  up  the  form  above,  straight  stakes  as  high  as 
the  top  of  the  proposed  tank  may  be  set  around 
the  inner  circle  about  1'  to  3'  apart,  depending 
on  how  small  the  circle  is,  and  boards  bent 
around  and  lightly  nailed  at  the  ends  to  make 
the  inner  form.  In  this  form  there  will  be  no 
slope  to  the  wall,  but  it  will  be  built  perpen- 
dicularly and  dependence  put  in  good  reinforce- 
ment to  prevent  cracking.  It  is  rather  hard  to 
build  a  sloping  circular  form  and  the  steel  re- 
quired will  not  cost  much  more  than  the  extra 
amount  of  concrete  in  a  tapering  wall. 

When  the  inner  circle  is  built  set  up  around 
it  boards  6"  wide  opposite  the  stakes,  to  space 
the  outer  form,  and  about  them  bend  the  boards 
that  make  this  form.  These  boards  may  be  of 
ordinary  %"  stuff  of  the  mills  if  the  circle  is 
large  enough,  or  they  may  be  run  through  the 
planer  and  brought  down  to  %"  if  it  is  a  circle 
of  about  16'.  To  throw  the  boards  in  the  water 
for  24  hours  before  using  will  greatly  help  their 
bending.  Do  not  nail  the  boards  of  the  outer 
form  to  the  pieces  separating  the  two  forms,  since 
these  must  be  removed  before  concrete  is  put  in 
— they  may  be  lifted  out  gradually,  as  the  wall 
rises,  or  taken  out  at  once. 

To  hold  the  outer  form  together  the  ends  of 
the  boards  may  be  spliced  together  by  butting 
them  against  each  other  and  nailing  another 
short  board  over  the  joint,  on  the  outside,  of 
course,  and  the  nails  must  either  be  driven  from 
the  inside  of  the  board  or  else  be  too  short  to 
come  into  the  space  of  the  concrete.  As  there 
will  be  considerable  pressure  on  this  outer  form 
it  should  be  well  fastened  together  and  it  is  well 
to  wire  it  to  the  stakes  back  of  the  inner  form. 

The  circular  forms  are  not  difficult  to  make, 
but  are  hard  to  describe  briefly.  Strong  wires 
about  the  outer  form  will  prove  useful.  When 
the  two  hoops  are  done  they  will  leave  between 
them  a  space  of  6"  which  is  to  be  filled  with  con- 


crete. As  the  filling  progresses  lay  in  wires 
completely  encircling  the  wall  and  lapping  36", 
with  the  ends  simply  turned  over  at  right  angles. 
These  wires  may  be  of  No.  4  size  and  put  in  6" 
apart  as  you  come  up.  Black  wire  will  serve  as 
well  as  galvanized.  To  straighten  this  wire  when 
it  comes  from  the  coil  fasten  one  end  to  a  tree 
or  post  and  another  end  to  a  12'  lever,  the  short 
end  against  another  tree,  and  let  a  strong  team 
pull  against  the  wire,  which  will  effectually  take 
out  its  curling  properties.  Then  with  a  bolt  cut- 
ter cut  it  into  lengths  and  put  it  in  place  as 
needed. 

To  finish  this  tank,  remove  the  inner  form 
carefully  after  a  day  or  two  and  wash  it  with 
pure  cement  and  water,  as  thick  as  cream ;  throw 
out  all  sod,  loose  earth  and  loam,  and  put  into 
the  tank  a  lot  of  pigs,  little  and  big.  Turn  in 
water  enough  to  make  it  muddy  and  feed  them 
in  there  for  a  week  or  so.  That  will  puddle  the 
bottom  perfectly,  when  it  may  be  carefully 
cleaned  with  a  shovel  and  the  water  turned  in. 
An  outlet  pipe  should  be  put  in  so  that  the  tank 
may  be  emptied  as  are  other  tanks.  This  is  the 
cheapest  and  most  satisfactory  manner  of  storing 
water  in  pasture,  when  fed  by  windmill. 

A  tank  30'  in  diameter,  holding  36"  of  water, 
will  take  about  12  barrels  of  cement  and  10 
yards  of  coarse  stuff.  The  wood  of  the  forms 
may  be  used  over  and  over  if  care  is  taken  to 
pull  the  nails  when  taking  apart.  Nails  in  forms 
should  always  be  left  out  enough  so  that  a  ham- 
mer can  grasp  them. 

The  bottom  of  such  a  tank  should  not  freeze, 
else  it  may  need  puddling  again.  A  concrete 
bottom  may  be  put  in  at  any  time  if  it  is  ever 
desired. 

SMALL    CIRCULAR   TANKS. 

In  building  a  small  circular  tank  the  form 
cannot  well  be  bent  to  shape,  and  vertical  pieces 
must  be  used,  being  arranged  much  as  the  staves 
are  in  a  wooden  tank.  These  may  be  held  in 
the  outer  part  of  the  form  by  wooden  bands  of 
1/^"  stuff  lightly  nailed  and  the  inner  form  may 
be  set  around  a  circle  made  by  nailing  wide 
boards  together  and  with  a  string  and  pencil 
describing  a  circle  on  them,  after  which  the  saw 
or  axe  may  trim  them  to  shape. 

Storage  tanks  are  often  desired  of  circular 
form  and  high  enough  to  put  water  in  the  upper 
stories  of  barns  or  dwellings.  Concrete  storage 
tanks  are  made  as  high  as  100'  for  city  use,  and 
there  are  no  engineering  difficulties  in  their  con- 
struction. They  are  built  with  thin  walls,  well 
reinforced  with  steel.  In  building  these  con- 
crete storage  tanks  the  concrete  is  no  more  than 
the  shell  for  preventing  leakage,  the  steel  taking 
all  stress  of  bursting  pressure,  and  this  important 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 


223 


principle  should  be  borne  in  mind,  by  all  who 
attempt  to  build  concrete  silos  or  tall  storage 
tanks. 

A  good  idea  in  building  such  a  storage  tank 
is  to  use  the  lower  part  of  the  tower  for  a  milk 
room,  toolhouse  or  meathouse,  since  the  less 
the  depth  of  water  the  easier  the  pressure  is  held. 
To  accomplish  this  let  us  consider  a  storage  tank, 
circular  in  form,  8'  in  inside  diameter  and  20' 
high.  Begin  by  putting  the  foundation  trench 
in  solid  earth ;  let  the  foundation  be  about  18" 
wide,  thougli  the  wall  above  ground  need  not  be 
thicker  than  6".  Erect  a  form  to  a  height  of 
say  10',  either  by  use  of  staves  or  upright 
l)oards  held  by  circles,  or  use  of  curved  steel 
forms,  such  as  are  now  made  for  silo  building. 
Build  the  wall  to  the  height  of  10',  leaving  an 
opening  for  door  and  window  if  desired,  but 
using  a  reinforcing  wire  of  No.  6  size  laid  in 
horizontally  at  intervals  of  12"  and  vertical  wires 
of  the  same  size  24"  apart.  At  the  height  of 
10'  lay  a  wooden  floor  across  the  space  inside  the 
walls  and  upon  this  floor  a  heap  of  moist  sand, 
moulding  it  into  the  shape  of  a  rather  flat  arch, 
say  Avith  a  rise  of  24"  at  the  center.  This  sand 
will  hold  the  concrete  for  the  roof  of  the  lower 
story  of  the  floor  of  the  water  tank  quite  as 
well  as  an  expensive  wooden  form.  It  is  essen- 
tial to  put  a  liberal  amount  of  reinforcement 
about  the  Avail  at  the  point  where  the  arch  be- 
gins to  spring,  since  it  will  thrust  in  each  direc- 
tion, so  put  here  4  wires  of  No.  4  size  and  across 
the  arch  put  also  a  wire  in  the  midst  of  the  con- 


crete, following  the  curve  and  crossing  at  the 
top,  one  Avire  at  about  each  12",  and  other  cir- 
cling AA^ires  12"  apart  from  the  base  of  the  arch 
to  the  croAvn.  The  arch  need  not  be  thicker  than 
6".  In  it  must  be  placed  the  pipes  for  inlet 
and  outlet. 

Upon  this  story  the  tank  proper  is  built,  also 
AA'ith  AA'alls  6"  thick,  reinforced  Avith  one  No.  4 
Avire  for  each  8"  of  height  near  the  bottom,  de- 
creasing to  12"  apart  at  the  upper  distance. 
The  roof  may  be  of  Avood,  in  Avhich  case  bolts 
should  be  let  into  the  concrete  at  the  upper  mar- 
gin, threads  up,  to  receive  and  hold  the  Avooden 
plate;  or,  it  may  be  of  concrete,  either  a  flat 
slab  reinforced,  or  a  cone-shaped  roof  or  an 
arched  form.  In  case  wood  is  used  it  is  made 
from  inch  boards,  about  12"  AA'ide  and  7'  long; 
these  boards  are  ripped  diagonally  from  point 
to  point  and  to  make  a  roof  are  put  Avith  all 
points  meeting  at  the  same  place,  AA'hicli  makes 
a  perfect  one.  Shingles  should  complete  the 
Avooden  roof. 

RUBBLE  AVORK  FOR  WALLS  AND  POSTS. 

In  many  regions  there  are  to  be  found  an 
abundance  of  small  round  stones,  from  the  size 
of  a  cocoanut  to  a  small  pumpkin.  These  make 
beautiful  walls  laid  AA'ith  concrete.  The  manner 
of  using  them  is  to  build  a  form  Avide  enough 
to  receive  the  stones  and  leave  a  margin  of  about 
4"  for  concrete  on  one  side.  Then  the  stones 
are  laid  in  place  along  the  side  of  the  form  and 
concrete,  rather  rich  and  rather  thin,  is  throAvn 


.•  * 

'A 

^"^yr^  ^       **^     ail 

^^.:-7%,^         .              -^^ 

•  ^                     '^f     "         '^      ^    <i  ^     • 

p .  tj^^^g 

\  ■                                      .J^^^^^^^"**^^^^M 

■Rl      ^^-■**- 

'kk^m 

;;    1  iiiiiimiiiiii'iisir^*'^' 

ji^^^&^^KKtt^^ 

FIG.     3Si8.      CONCKETE    RUBBLE    WORK    FOR    GATE    POSTS. 


224 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


back  of  them.  With  care  the  stones  need  not  be 
much  stained  with  cement;  the  concrete  will 
work  in  between  the  stones  sufficiently  to  imbed 
them  and  hold  them  in  place,  and  the  result  is 
a  very  cheap  and  attractive  wall. 

Gate  posts  may  be  built  in  this  manner:  sim- 
ple boxes  open  at  each  side,  made  of  four  boards 
about  12"  wide  and  36"  long,  are  laid  upon  a 
concrete  foundation ;  stones  are  laid  within  these 
boxes,  close  to  the  wood,  and  when  a  course  of 
them  is  laid  the  middle  is  filled  with  rich  con- 
crete thin  enough  to  work  out  between  the 
stones.  A  piece  of  iron  reinforcement  in  the 
center  will  prove  of  value  and  if  the  farmer 
will  search  his  scrap  piles  he  will  find  ample 
stuff  for  this  purpose  at  no  outlay.  Hinges 
should  be  very  strong,  very  long,  and  laid  in  at 
the  right  place,  since  once  the  cement  has  set 
they  cannot  be  changed.  A  latch  holder  of 
simple  design  may  be  laid  in  place  also.  As 
good  a  one  as  any  is  a  simple  flat  bridging  bar 
of  iron  with  a  notch  in  the  middle  of  it  to  re- 
ceive the  latch,  the  ends  turned  far  into  the  con- 
crete. The  latch  strikes  the  slope  of  this  iron 
and  slides  easily  up  until  it  drops  into  place 
and  holds  the  gate.     (See  Fig.  388.) 

CONCRETE  FOR  SILOS. 

Concrete  makes  a  good  silo.  It  is  air-tight 
and  imperishable.  It  keeps  silage  perfectly  and 
needs  no  attention  when  well  built.  It  is  not 
costly  where  materials  are  at  hand  and  cement 
is  not  too  dear.  Thirty-five  barrels  of  cement 
will  build  a  concrete  silo  30'  high  and  16'  in 
diameter,  inside  measure. 

Concrete  silos  are  most  economically  built 
with  thin  walls,  well  reinforced.  They  are  some- 
times built  with  hollow  walls  in  cold  climates. 
The  cheapest  type  of  concrete  silo,  and  one  an- 
swering the  purpose  as  well  as  any  where  the 
winters  are  not  too  cold,  has  a  wall  about  6" 
thick  at  the  base  and  tapering  to  4"  thick  at  the 
top.  Such  a  wall  needs  reinforcement.  To  use 
vertical  wires  of  No.  4  gauge,  one  every  24", 
and  horizontal  wires  of  the  same  gauge,  one 
every  8",  will  provide  ample  reinforcement. 

There  are  several  ways  to  erect  concrete  silos ; 
2"  X  6"  studdings  may  be  set  up  on  the  founda- 
tion (which  is  a  simple  ring  of  concrete  in  a 
trench,  about  12"  wide  and  18"  deep)  as  though" 
to  build  an  ordinary  wooden  silo  or  tank.  These 
studdings  are  held  in  place  by  bending  about 
their  inside  thin  strips  of  wood  and  nailing  with 
6-penny  nails  to  hold  them.  This  makes  the 
inner  form. 

For  the  outer  form  set  up  studdings  36"  apart 
and  514"  from  the  inner  studdings  at  the  bottom 
and  41/2"  at  the  top.  These  studdings  are  tied 
to  the  inner  hoop  by  means  of  wires  let  through 


holes  and  twisted  tight.  No  12  wires  are  right. 
On  the  inside  of  these  studdings  are  placed 
boards  Y2"  thick,  either  of  green  lumber  or  stuff 
that  has  been  previously  soaked  well  to  make 
them  pliant.  But  one  board  is  placed  in  at  a  time 
and  the  concrete  filled  back  of  it.  Next  a  wire 
is  put  in,  then  another  board.  The  wires  are  cut 
to  be  about  36"  longer  than  the  circumference 
of  the  silo  and  the  ends  turned  square  over.  To 
take  the  curl  out  of  heavy  wire  stretch  with 
strong  team  and  lever  till  near  the  breaking 
point ;  then  it  will  lie  straight  and  may  be  cut 
into  lengths  as  desired.  With  silos  larger  than 
16'  in  diameter  or  higher  than  30'  larger  wires 
should  be  used  than  No.  4. 

The  concrete  mixture  should  be  a  fairly  rich 
one,  say  1  barrel  of  cement  to  %  of  a  yard  of 
gravel,  or  if  broken  stone  is  used  the  proportions 
should  be  1  of  cement,  2  of  sharp  sand  and  4 
of  broken  stone.  To  finish  the  silo  a  good  plan 
is  to  let  bolts  project  up  and  down  the  length 
of  the  door  openings  (which  should  have  metal 
reinforcement  around  them,  the  wires  attaching) 
and  to  these  bolts  fasten  the  chute  for  holding 
the  ladder  and  for  throwing  down  the  silage. 
Let  bolts  also  project  from  the  sides,  outwardly, 
near  the  top  and  24"  below,  so  that  8  short 
posts  may  be  bolted  in  place  to  hold  a  cone- 
shaped  roof  raised  up  24"  above  the  edge.  This 
gives  light  to  the  inside  of  the  silo  and  allows 
the  filling  to  proceed  clear  above  the  edge,  thus 
giving  chance  to  settle.  A  strip  of  canvas  may 
be  stretched  around  these  posts  at  filling  time. 
The  plate  is  a  hoop  of  the  i/o"  stuff,  used  in  four 
or  five  thicknesses,  breaking  joints.  The  roof  is 
made  with  2"  x  12"  planks,  14'  long  for  a  silo 
16'  in  diameter,  ripped  diagonally  through  from 
corner  to  corner,  put  up  with  the  points  together, 
shingled  and  the  peak  covered  with  a  galvanized 
cap. 

After  the  wooden  form  is  taken  off  the  silo 
may  be  washed,  inside  and  out,  with  pure  ce- 
ment and  water  as  thick  as  cream  and  the  in- 
side coated  with  hot  pitch  which  will  effectually 
resist  the  acids  of  the  corn.  No  floor  other 
than  the  earth  is  desirable  and  the  silo  should 
not  be  put  far  into  the  ground. 

There  are  also  steel  forms  for  silo  building 
that  are  very  convenient  and  economical,  and 
silos  are  made  from  specially  curved  concrete 
blocks,  made  with  grooves  in  their  top  surfaces, 
which  grooves  receive  the  wire  reinforcement. 
Concrete  block  silos  should  be  plastered  after 
being  laid  with  a  plaster  of  cement,  sharp  sand 
2  parts,  and  afterward  pitched. 

CEMENT  FOR  ROOFING. 

Cement  roof  laid  over  wooden  rafters  has  not 
generally  proved  satisfactory.     The  contraction 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


225 


of  the  wood,  the  inequalities  of  temperature,  the 
settling  of  the  roof,  all  serve  to  crack  the  roof 
and  make  it  leak.  The  one  feasible  means  of 
stopping  these  cracks  is  hot  pitch  and  cement, 
mixed,  the  pitch  not  too  stiff.  However,  cement 
shingles  and  tiles  are  now  made  that  form  ad- 
mirable roofing  and  are  certainly  superior  to 
shingles  or  slate,  while  costing  but  little  more. 
As  these  must  be  made  with  patented  machines 
we  will  not  describe  them  here.  It  is  well  to 
remark,  however,  that  these  cement  tiles  may 
be  colored  Avith  dry  iron  ore  color  mixed  with 
the  mortar  of  which  they  are  made,  so  that  they 
will  very  closely  resemble  the  best  tiles,  and  the 
coloring  is  imperisliable. 

CEMENT  FOR  HEARTHSTONES. 

Cement  makes  admirable  hearths  for  fireplaces 
and  these  withstand  fire  quite  as  well  as  the  tiles 
that  are  ordinarily  bought,  and  are  if  well  made 
nearly  or  quite  as  beautiful,  besides  never  crack- 
ing or  scaling  off  as  the  tiles  so  often  do.  The 
writer  has  three  of  these  hearths,  all  in  use,  one 
of  them  constantly,  and  exposed  to  a  good  deal 
of  heat,  and  all  are  perfect  after  two  years'  use. 
They  were  made  as  follows:  Fill  a  simple  box 
where  the  hearth  is  to  be  with  about  4"  of  con- 
crete, not  very  rich,  and  upon  it  a  top  coat  of 
about  y?"  ^^  mortar  mixed  1  to  2  of  sand.  This 
top  coat  should  have  mixed  in  it  the  dry  color 
of  iron  ore.  The  liearths  are  troweled  down 
very  hard  and  smooth  and  then  carefully  marked 
into  2"  squares  so  that  they  closely  resemble 
red  tiles  and  are  usually  taken  for  such. 

CONCRETE  FOR  CHIMNEYS. 

Concrete  chimneys  when  made  of  porous 
blocks  have  gone  almost  at  once  to  pieces 
through  the  destructive  influence  of  coal  smoke 
which  contains  sulphuric  acid  gas.  Yet  con- 
crete chimneys  are  built  of  great  size  and  height 
by  manufacturers,  their  stacks  having  linings  of 
clay.  With  good  clay  chimney  linings  there 
would  seem  to  be  no  reason  why  concrete  should 
not  be  used  for  chimney  building  for  residences 
or  other  uses.  It  is  no  more  liable  to  deteriora- 
tion from  smoke  than  is  lime  mortar  with  which 
bricks  are  laid  and  this  is  not  operative  anyway 
where  water  does  not  reach  the  work.  Concrete 
chimneys  should  be  made  of  well  mixed  and  well 
proportioned  material  so  as  to  be  almost  or  quite 
without  voids. 

THE  USE  OF  OUTSIDE  PLASTERING. 

To  put  plaster  on  outside  walls  with  common 
laths  one  must  have  first  a  solid  backing  of  some 
rough  lumber;  any  dry  stuff  will  serve,  but  pine 
is  to  be  preferred,  as  it  is  not  apt  to  warp.    Space 


the  laths  out  from  the  side  of  the  building  about 
%".    Nail  them  on  IY2"  apart. 

The  best  way  to  plaster  the  outside  of  build- 
ings is  to  use  common  poultry  netting,  that  of 
an  inch  mesh  being  best,  although  good  results 
are  had  with  coarser  mesh.  This  woven  wire 
comes  in  rolls.  It  is  put  over  the  wall  of  the 
building  spaced  i^"  away;  or,  if  a  very  warm 
wall  is  desired,  •'^4"?  and  stretched  tight.  The 
best  way  to  put  it  on  is  to  unroll  and  hang  it 
as  wall  paper  is  hung,  fastening  the  top  first, 
then  one  edge,  then  by  using  6  or  8-penny  nails, 
starting  them  slanting  in  the  edge  of  the  net- 
ting, it  may  be  stretched  sideways.  This  stuff 
cannot  be  stretched  lengthways,  but  may  easily 
be  stretched  taut  sideways.  It  is  kept  away  from 
the  wall  by  the  use  of  laths  running  vertically, 
2'  apart.  Light  staples  1"  long  hold  it  in  place, 
and  if  it  should  pucker  anywhere  it  is  held  down 
by  a  staple.  Screws  1"  long  are  used  to  hold 
it  away  from  the  building;  the  ijiesh  wires  are 
placed  in  the  slot  of  the  screws ;  the  staple  holds 
them  there  and  a  tap  of  the  hammer  drives  it 
down  right.  The  netting  is  put  on  rapidly  and 
is  cheap.  Being  galvanized  it  is  very  durable, 
especially  when  incased  in  plaster. 

The  plaster  should  be  made  of  good  fresh 
lime  and  sharp  sand.  It  should  be  made  up  in 
large  amount  before  the  plastering  is  begun  so 
thdt  all  colors  will  be  alike.  It  should  not  be 
rich  in  lime,  but  should  be  made  as  though  for 
mason's  mortar.  It  is  put  on  as  over  laths.  It 
is  best  to  apply  two  coats,  the  first  barely  hiding 
the  wire  and  a  thin  coat  over  that  before  it  is 
thoroughly  dry.  This  will  fill  and  hide  all  small 
cracks.  When  it  is  completed  the  wire  is  im- 
bedd3d  in  the  middle  of  the  thickness  of  the 
plaster.  It  cannot  crack;  it  cannot  peel  off. 
for  the  wire  being  firmly  stapled  to  the  wall 
holds  it  solidly  in  place.  As  time  goes  on  and 
the  wall  gets  wet  and  dry  again  the  mortar  be- 
comes harder  and  harder  until  it  is  like  stone. 
It  is  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer. 

There  is  yet  another  use  for  outside  plaster. 
That  is  for  covering  outbuildings;  poultry 
houses  plastered  outside  and  in  are  warm,  sight- 
ly, easily  kept  free  from  vermin  and  cheap. 
There  need  be  but  one  thickness  of  boards  and  the 
wire  stretched  over  it  on  each  side  or  common 
laths  may  be  used  for  the  inside.  The  cost  of  this 
sort  of  plastering  is  about  double  the  cost  of 
painting  once.  A  better  plaster  is  made  of  Port- 
land cement  one  part,  clean  sand  two  parts.  This 
hardens  into  a  cement  impervious  to  moisture. 

CEMENT  FLOOR  IN  IIOGHOUSE. 

Fig.  389  shows  the  cross  section  of  a  liog- 
house  24'  x  60'  with  a  cement  floor.  The  floor 
is  made  in  two  levels,  1'  lower  in  the  middle 


226 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


than  at  the  sides.  By  this  means  a  dry  clean 
feeding  tioor  in  front  and  a  dry  clean  sleeping 
floor  back  are  insured,  and  a  space  in  the  middle 
to  collect  all  droppings  and  moisture.  Bedding 
should  be  used  and  absorbents.  The  trough 
should  extend  along  the  front  and  be  of  cement 
10"  deep  and  the  front  by  the  trough  should  be 
hinged  so  as  to  open  inwardly  enough  to  lock 


CROSS  SECTION  HOG  HOUSE 

CEMENT  FLOOR  AND  TROUGH 


FIG.     38.9.       CONCRETE    FLOOR    FOR    HOGHOUSE. 

at  the  front  side  of  the  trough,  thus  shutting 
the  swine  away  from  the  trough  while  it  is  be- 
ing cleaned  and  feed  put  in.  The  trough  should 
be  divided  at  intervals  of  about  16'  so  that  liquid 
feed  cannot  run  away.  The  cement  should  ex- 
tend upward  1'  to  form  the  foundation  wall  and 
the  superstructure  of  wood  anchored  to  it  by 
%"  bolts  imbedded  in  the  cement. 

CONCRETE  FLOOR  FOR  HOGHOUSE. 

The  bottom  to  receive  concrete  should  be  solid, 
so  that  it  will  not  settle  in  holes  nor  out  of  the 
original  level.  It  must  be  so  that  no  water  can 
stand  under  it,  as  it  will  freeze  in  winter  and 
heave  up  the  floor,  of  course  cracking  the  con- 
crete. It  is  best  to  remove  a  few  inches  of  top 
soil  and  tamp  well  the  surface  that  is  to  receive 
the  cement.  The  general  way  is  to  excavate 
8"  to  12"  and  fill  with  gravel.  But  if  the  floor 
is  protected  from  water  getting  under  it  the 
gravel  is  not  necessary. 

The  best  concrete  is  made  from  broken  stone, 
gravel  and  coarse  sand.  IMix  dry  13  parts  gravel, 
6  parts  sand,  6  parts  Portland  cement;  then, 
when  thoroughly  mixed,  add  water  to  make  a 
stiff  paste.  Then  take  27  parts  broken  stone, 
thoroughly  drenched  with  water,  so  that  all  fine 
dust  may  be  w^ashed  out,  and  mix  the  crushed 
stone  with  the  other  until  all  is  incorporated  with 
the  cement. 

In  laying  cement  it  is  best  to  divide  the  floor 
into  squares  of  4'  or  5'  with  2"  x  4"  pieces  firm- 
ly staked  down.  Fill  every  alternate  square  with 
the  mortar  well  tamped  down  until  the  fine  ce- 
ment begins  to  come  to  the  top.  After  it  has 
stood  a  short  time  at  least,  but  before  it  is  dry, 


apply  a  finishing  coat  of  I/2"  or  74",  made  of  2 
parts  sifted  sand  to  1  part  of  cement,  smoothing 
down  with  a  trowel.  After  setting  it  so  as  to 
be  fairly  firm  remove  the  2"  x  4s"  and  fill  the 
other  squares  in  the  same  way.  If  made  in  too 
large  squares  shrinkage  cracks  will  occur.  In 
laying  cement  walks  or  feeding  floors  outdoors 
the  cracks  marking  the  divisions  or  sc^uares  are 
cut  clear  through  the  cement,  thus  allowing  for 
contraction  and  expansion. 

To  make  concrete  without  the  broken  stone, 
coarse  gravel  may  be  used,  but  it  will  need  more 
cement,  say  6  or  7  parts  of  sand  and  gravel 
to  1  of  cement.  There  seems  to  be  no  hard 
and  fast  rule  as  to  this.  Only  as  much  should 
be  mixed  at  one  time  as  can  be  immediately 
used. 

After  completion  the  floor  should  be  sprinkled 
daily  with  water,  which  is  necessary  to  complete 
hardening  of  the  concrete.  It  is  best  to  leave 
the  studding  around  the  outside  for  a  long  while. 
Concrete  will  usually  cost  from  a  quarter  to  a 
half  more  than  wood,  but  the  concrete  is  for  all 
time  and  is  certainly  more  sanitary  and  easier 
to  clean  and  keep  clean. 

CEMENT  FEEDING  FLOOR  FOR  HOGS. 

A  cement  feeding  floor  for  hogs  may  be  built 
12'  wide,  as  long  as  desired,  with  a  slope  of  1" 
in  12"  and  preferably  with  a  drop  at  the  lower 
side  and  a  cement  trough  at  the  upper  side.  A 
cross  section  of  the  ideal  feeding  floor  is  shown 
in  Fig.  390.  Let  the  floor  be  in  plain  uninter- 
rupted sunlight,  as  sun  is  a  sure  destroyer  of 
disease  germs. 


-      -      -        -----      —     -      -    —    -    —   —  ---         t.'M'-jr 


FIG.     390.       CEMENT    FEEDING    FLOOR    FOR    HOGHOUSE. 

In  the  cut  T  is  the  trough  and  over  it  is  a 
section  of  swinging  fence  that  will  close  it  from 
the  hogs  while  the  slop  or  feed  is  put  in ;  L  is 
line  of  level ;  F  fence  of  woven  wire  to  prevent 
hogs  from  crowding  each  other  over  the  bank; 
8  slope  over  which  cobs  and  manure  descend. 

CEMENT  WATERING  TROUGH. 

Cement  or  concrete  watering  troughs  are  fast 
supplanting  the  fast-decaying  and  ever-ready- 
to-leak  troughs.  Of  the  former  two  types  are 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations.    Fences, 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


227 


walls,  floors,  troughs  and  well  coverings  all  de- 
cay. Therefore  the  coming  of  good  cement  at  a 
low  price  is  doubly  welcome  to  the  farmer.  It 
seems  now  that  he  may  do  things  so  well  that 
they  will  stay  done  through  several  generations 
and  at  slightly  greater  expense  than  the  tem- 
porary makeshifts  to  which  he  has  been  accus- 
tomed. 

To  build  a  watering  trough,  remove  the  top 
soil  down  to  where  it  is  firm,  say  8".  Build  a 
box  the  size  of  the  outside  of  the  trough,  say  4' 
X  12'  and  3'  high.  Make  it  strong  to  resist  pres- 
sure when  cement  is  rammed  against  it.  setting 
stakes  at  the  sides  and  tieing  across  the  top. 
Put  in  the  bottom  a  layer  of  concrete  about  4" 
thick  and  through  it  insert  a  drain  pipe,  and  an 


FIG.     391.        CEMENT     WATERING    TROUGH. 

inlet  pipe.  Make  the  drain  pipe  11/^'  with  coup- 
ling, coming  just  flush  with  the  floor  of  cement. 
Into  this  coupling  screw  a  short  standpipe,  so 
that  into  this  the  overflow  will  discharge  and 
when  it  is  unscrewed  the  whole  tank  will  be 
emptied.  ]\Iake  this  short  standpipe  to  screw 
in  easily  and  keep  the  threads  greased.  (See 
Figs.  391  and  392.) 

Do  not  try  to  fill  up  the  tank  with  concrete 
high  enough  to  allow  stock  to  drink  out  all  the 
water.  Water  is  the  cheapest  material  with 
which  to  fill  the  bottom  of  a  trough.  ]Make  an 
inner  form  with  sloping  sides  so  that  the  wall 


will  be  6"  thick  at  the  top  and  16"  thick  at  the 
bottom;  put  in  place  and  fill  with  concrete  and 
pound  it  down  as  hard  as  possible.  Do  this  be- 
fore the  bottom  has  become  thoroughly  hard. 
When  it  has  set  a  day  or  two  take  off  the  wood 
carefully  and  wash  trough  well  with  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  pure  cement  and  pure  sand,  using 
a  fairly  fine  clean  sand,  or  cement  alone.  Put 
it  on  with  a  whitewash  brush.  Sprinkle  the  work 
twice  a  day  and  when  a  little  hard  carefully  fiU. 
it  with  water. 

A  CONCRETE  SMOKEHOUSE. 

Concrete  is  an  excellent  material  with  which 
to  build  smokehouses,  since  the  walls  are  cool 
and  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  the  heating  of 
the  meat  by  means  of  the  smoke  arising.  Where 
it  is  possible  the  smoke  pit  should  be  a  little  dis- 
tance away  and  the  smoke  allowed  to  enter 
through  a  little  tunnel,  which  may  be  made  of 


,  fci-  i 


FIG.     392.        CEMENT     WATERING    TROUGH. 


FIG.     393.       CONCRETE    SMOKEHOUSE. 


k 


228 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


an  8"  or  10"  tile.  The  concrete  walls  need  not 
be  more  than  6"  thick  and  if  desired  the  top  may 
be  formed  cheaply  of  one  slab  of  concrete,  laid 
with  a  very  little  slant  to  carry  off  the  drip. 
(Fig.  393.)  In  this  slab  should  be  imbedded 
a  No.  1  wire  about  each  6",  running  in  both  di- 
rections, which  will  prevent  its  cracking.  The 
hooks  to  hang  the  meat  should  then  be  inserted 
in  the  concrete  when  it  is  formed.  The  meat 
bench  should  be  of  concrete  also. 

A  CONCRETE  WATER  TANK. 

An  Ohio  farmer  contributes  the  following: 
''The  problem  of  the  water  supply  for  the  farm 
house  and  lawn  may  be  solved  in  various  ways. 
When  one  can  have  running  water  from  a  spring 
he  is  fortunate,  and  if  his  house  sets  too  high  for 
'that  he  can  often  lift  water  by  use  of  the  hy- 
draulic ram.  Next  comes  the  tank,  to  be  filled 
by  means  of  a  pump  or  by  gravity  from  the  roof. 
This  must  always  be  the  main  reliance  on  farms 
'in  the  level  regions  of  the  Middle  West.  And 
when  tanks  are  considered  there  is  choice  be- 
tween the  elevated  tank  and  the  pneumatic  or 
air  service.  We  placed  a  steel  pneumatic  tank 
in  the  cellar  and  we  fill  this  by  pumping  direct- 
ly from  a  large  underground  cistern.  It  works 
admirably.  We  pump  by  hand,  but  there  is 
objection  to  any  system  that  involves  human  la- 
bor in  pumping.  Engines  need  care  and  time  to 
start  and  stop  them.  Let  us  call  the  labor  cost 
of  pumping  our  tank  $18  a  year.  The  water 
is  worth  that  and  a  great  deal  more.  But  it 
is  very  evident  that  if  a  pressure  tank  costs  in 
labor  $18  a  year  to  fill,  then  it  is  worth  while 
scheming  how  to  get  one  filled  for  nothing.  If 
it  is  possible  to  equip  himself  with  an  automatic 
tank-filling  device  a  man  can  clearly  afford  to 
expend  something  like  $300  more  to  accomplish 
it  than  what  the  air  presure  system  would  cost. 
Water  in  the  best  farming  regions  where  water 
tanks  are  needed  is  often  hard  or  filled  with 
lime.    For  bathing  one  finds  rainwater  best. 

"There  is  nothing  new  in  this  idea,  but  when 
elevated  tanks  have  been  made  of  wood  or  set  on 
wooden  towers  they  have  usually  proved  trouble- 
some. The  one  new  thing  is  concrete.  (See 
Fig.  394.)  Rightly  built,  I  believe  it  will  prove 
perfect.  At  the  old  homestead  stood  an  old 
stone  building,  about  10'  x  10',  once  used  for  a 
dairy.  Taking  it  as  a  foundation  we  erected  on 
it  a  concrete  tank  a  little  more  than  9'  in  diam- 
eter, inside  measure,  and  8'  deep  with  walls  6" 
thick.  The  tank  has  a  capacity  of  a  little  more 
than  200  barrels;  perhaps  it  is  unnecessarily 
large,  but  we  can  use  it  for  irrigation  in  dry 
seasons  about  the  lawn  and  garden.  The  weight 
of  this  water  will  be  22Y>  tons,  so  it  is  evident 


that  the  structure  must  be  strong.  It  must  be 
well  reinforced  with  steel  rods  laid  in  the  con- 
crete, both  bottom  and  sides.  To  help  those 
who  may  build  from  the  ground  up  I  estimate 
that  it  would  take  18  yards  of  concrete,  as  many 
of  gravel  (or  whatever  material  is  used)  and  24 
l)arrels  of  cement  to  make  a  rich  mixture.  The 
cost  of  materials  will  be  for  18  yards  of  gravel, 
24  barrels  of  best  cement,  $48,  and  steel  for  re- 
inforcing about  $20. 

"Thus  there  is  a  cash  outlay  for  materials  of 
something  like  $85,  not  counting  the  wood  for 
the  forms.  We  built  the  forms  ourselves.  It  took 
eight  men  about  2i/^  days  to  fill  the  forms  with 
concrete,  including  the  time  spent  in  hauling 
gravel.  Thus  the  labor  cost  may  be  set  down 
roughly  at  $40.  The  tank  should  be  finished 
for  about  $150,  counting  use  of  wood  for  forms. 
One  can  hardly  buy  a  good  pressure  tank  and 
pump  for  less  than  that  amount.  And  it  must 
l)e  remembered  that  pressure  tanks  are  not  stor- 
age tanks ;  one  must  have  storage  in  addition. 
However,  this  tank  would  not  be  nearly  high 
enough  for  some  situations;  there  would  need 
be  an  additional  story  between  the  lower  room 
(designed  for  use  as  a  small  farm  dairy  room) 
and  the  tank  room.  This  would  not  add  very 
much  to  the  cost,  maybe  about  one-fifth  more, 
since  foundation,  roof  and  floor  would  be  the 
same  in  either  case,  and  a  floor  of  wood  over 
the  dairy  would  be  sufficient.  There  might  be 
ice  stored  over  the  dairy ;  in  that  case  a  concrete 
floor  should  be  laid. 

"In  our  situation  we  got  elevation  enough 
without  going  higher  than  16',  and  with  this 
elevation  we  can  fill  the  tank  from  the  clean 
metal  roof  of  a  large  barn  standing  about  200'  dis- 
tant. The  pipe  leading  the  water  across  is  2" 
in  diameter,  buried  below  frost  and  has  in  it  a 
vent  hole  to  empty  it  in  winter  time  so  that 
water  may  not  stand  to  freeze  in  the  vertical 
stem.  We  made  some  blunders,  and  I  would  sug- 
gest that  a  good  handy  carpenter  put  up  the 
forms;  he  will  be  surer  to  get  things  plumlD  and 
square.  Let  me  emphasize  that  studding  for 
forms  should  be  no  farther  apart  than  24" 
where  inch  lumber  is  used,  and  that  it  is  better 
to  use  seasoned  pine  studding  that  will  keep 
straight  and  that  all  boards  should  be  run 
through  a  planer  and  sized.  They  receive  no 
great  injury  in  use  and  can  often  be  borrowed, 
or  hired,  from  the  dealer  in  lumber.  Wire  to- 
gether well ;  the  wet  concrete  will  press  hard 
in  every  direction  when  it  is  put  in  forms.  It 
takes,  of  course,  two  sets  of  studding;  they  will 
be  put  opposite  and  well  wired  together.  The 
outer  wooden  shell  of  wall  is  first  put  up,  high 
enough  to  lay  the  lower  walls,  and  the  concrete 
floor  (the  studding  may  go  clear  up),  then  the 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 


229 


FIG.    394.      CONCRETE    WATER    TANK. 


reinforcing  irons  must  go  in.  Here  is  need  of  a 
little  professional  skill  and  care.  One  can  get 
the  engineers  employed  by  manufacturers  of 
metal  reinforcement  to  specify  exactly  what  re- 
inforcement is  needed  and  how  it  shall  be  put 
in,  and  that  is  the  right  thing  to  do. 

"The  principle  of  metal  reinforcement  is  that 
the  steel  bars  be  put  as  near  the  outside  of  the 
wall  as  they  can  be  and  be  well  covered  with 
concrete ;  within  •')4 "  is  right.  Briefly,  the  tank 
is  made  a  network  of  bars,  spaced  4"  apart  in 
both  directions  on  the  bottom,  and  the  bars  i/o" 
diameter.  If  plain  steel  bars  are  used  their  ends 
should  be  turned  at  a  scjuare  turn.  About  the 
side  bars  are  spaced  first  4"  apart ;  then,  after 
24"  height,  they  are  5"  for  24"  more ;  then  6" 
the  rest  of  the  way ;  and  the  vertical  bars  about 
20"  apart  to  which  the  horizontal  ones  are  tied 
with  small  wires,  this  to  hold  them  in  place.  We 
were  careful  to  wire  our  cage  well  together,  to 
see  that  it  was  within  %"  of  the  wooden  form, 
yet  touching  it  nowhere,  then  we  put  in  our 
floor  of  concrete,  having  first  all  the  pipes  in 
place  that  would  be  needed  in  it,  and  then  we  let 
this  floor  harden  enough  so  that  the  rest  of  the 
form  could  be  put  in,  then  sprinkled  well  with 
pure  cement  where  the  wall  rested  on  the  floor 
and  put  up  the  rest  of  the  wall.  We  made  the 
mixture  both  rich  and  wet,  so  that  no  tamping 
was  needed,  and  only  a  little  agitation  with 
sticks  to  cause  air  bubbles  to  rise  out  was  given 
it.  The  proportions  we  used  with  our  gravel, 
naturally  well  filled  with  clean  sand,  were  1  of 
cement  to  41/4  of  gravel,  wet  enough  to  pour 
from  buckets  into  the  form.  This  wet  rich  mix- 
ture is  needed  in  a  reinforced  wall ;  it  coats  per- 


fectly each  bit  of  steel  and  preserves  it.  We 
made  the  roof  flat,  sloping  a  bit  toward  the 
middle  so  that  rain  will  flow  in,  projecting  30" 
on  each  side  and  4"  thick,  reinforced,  and  of 
course  for  the  projecting  part  the  reinforcement 
goes  on  the  top  surface,  just  hidden.  The 
Avater  that  falls  from  the  sky  to  this  roof  will 
fill  the  tank  almost  exactly  once  a  year,  of  nor- 
mal rainfall. 

"The  dairy  room  will  have  cement  milk  trough, 
will  always  be  cool  in  summer,  and  we  think 
will  not  freeze  in  winter,  with  that  mass  of 
water  above  it.  We  can  supplement  the  work 
of  the  roof  in  water  storage  by  the  windmill  if 
we  need  to  do  so. " 

CONCRETE   BLOCKS   FOR   HOUSES. 

A  Colorado  farmer  says  that  to  make  good 
cement  blocks  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  mixer, 
and  if  a  down-face  machine  is  used  the  operator 
should  have  three  different  batches  of  concrete 

BACK 


FIG.     395.       CONCRETE    BLOCKS    FOR    HOUSES. 

on  the  tables  at  all  times.  First,  use  a  fine  sand 
and  cement  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  2  parts 
sand   and   1   part   cement   for   the   face.      This 


230 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


should  be  simply  moistened  with  clean  water 
so  it  will  not  adhere  to  the  face  plate.  Cover 
the  face  plate  with  about  1/2"  of  this  material, 
then  add  a  coarser  mixture  of  damp  concrete 
and  tamp  lightly.  Then  throw  the  cores  into 
place  and  use  a  mixture  of  concrete  as  wet  as 
possible  and  yet  that  will  stand  up,  this  mix- 
ture to  be  used  at  both  sides  of  and  between  the 
cores.  This  should  be  tamped  more  than  the 
tirst  that  was  placed  in  the  mold.  Now  add 
enough  of  the  second  kind  used  to  complete  the 
block.  This  should  be  tamped  quite  hard.  Now 
smooth  off  the  back  of  the  block  and  remove  it 
from  the  machine. 

The  object  of  making  the  center  parts  of  the 
block  very  wet  is  to  check  the  moisture,  as  that 
part  of  the  block  will  be  more  dense  and  less 
porous  than  the  parts  immediately  adjoining  it, 
and  gives  the  dead  air  space  a  chance  to  absorb 
the  moisture. 

As  to  the  size  of  block  that  is  the  best  an  8"  x 
8"  X  16"  is  very  good  or  an  8"  x  9"  x  18"  is 
good.  Try  to  get  the  length  of  the  blocks  to 
be  an  exact  multiple  of  the  width  and  they  will 
handle  easier.  After  the  blocks  have  been  re- 
moved from  the  machine  they  should  be  carried 
away  to  where  they  will  not  be  interfered  with 
for  24  hours.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  crack  a 
block  simply  by  jarring  the  board  on  which  it  is 
placed,  as  might  be  done  by  walking  on  the 
board. 

When  the  blocks  are  about  12  hours  old  as 
soon  as  they  begin  to  show  a  light  color  they 
should  be  sprinkled  with  clean  water.  They 
may  be  taken  off  the  pallets  when  they  are  24 
to  36  hours  old.  They  should  be  piled  not  more 
than  three  high  the  first  day  they  are  removed 
from  the  pallets  and  sprinkled  three  times  a 
day  for  five  days.  Alternate  drying  and  wetting 
add  to  the  strength  of  the  blocks,  provided  they 


are  not  allowed  to  remain  entirely  dry  for  more 
than  12  hours.  After  five  days  they  may  be 
stacked  in  the  yard  and  watered  with  clean 
water  once  a  day  for  10  days,  and  two  or  three 
weeks  after  they  are  ready  to  be  placed  in  a 
wall. 

Fig.  395  shows  the  type  of  block  here  dis- 
cussed. Any  desired  face  can  be  formed  on  this 
block  when  being  made.  Use  nothing  but  Port- 
land cement  in  making  blocks,  as  the  natural  ce- 
ment will  not  stand  in  air. 


CONCRETE  WATERING  PLACES. 

A  concrete  storage  tank  for  water,  with  an 
arrangement  of  separate  drinking  places  for 
swine  and  sheep  that  will  not  freeze,  these  water- 
ing places  all  fed  from  the  storage  tank,  and 
somewhat  widely  separated  from  each  other,  may 
be  constructed  as  follows  (see  Fig.  396). 

Let  the  tank  be  a  good-sized  one,  round  or 
square.  In  building  it  if  a  section  of  cast  iron 
pipe  about  10"  in  diameter  can  be  secured  and 
passed  through  it  and  at  one  end  connected  with  a 
vertical  flue  or  pipe  it  will  be  wise.  A  little  fire 
can  be  built  in  this  pipe  and  the  chill  taken  off  the 
water;  besides  the  warmer  the  tank  w^ater  is 
kept  the  less  danger  of  the  watering  places 
freezing.  Beside  the  storage  tank,  or  at  some 
convenient  spot,  must  be  a  small  tank  to  have 
float  valve  and  be  connected  with  all  the  water- 
ing places.  These  of  course  must  all  be  on  the 
same  level.  This  small  tank  may  be  protected 
by  a  heap  of  straw  or  manure  so  that  frost  will 
not  affect  it  at  all.  Whenever  an  animal  takes 
a  mouthful  of  water  from  a  drinking  place  the 
water  is  lowered  in  this  secondary  tank  and  at 
once  a  fresh  supply  comes  in  from  the  main 


WATERING  PLACE 


STORAGE  TANK 


-jb it.  -  ii •. Si- 


natural   SURFACE 


-^^ 


SMALL  TANK 


m^ 


PIPE-"    ^ 


HEATEH 


INLET  PJPE  LEADING  TO  mi 


DEEP  FEED  PIPE 


FIG.     396.      CONCRETE     WATERING     PLACES. 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


231 


tank.  Perhaps  it  is  impossible  to  construct  in- 
dividual drinking  places  so  that  they  will  not 
sometimes  freeze  a  little  at  night  when  not  in 
use.  They  may  be  protected  with  hinged 
wooden  covers  that  will  help  greatly.  Lay  the 
pipes  supplying  them  very  deep.  Something 
may  be  done  to  prevent  frost  reaching  far  down 
the  pipes  by  providing  a  return  to  make  the 
water  circulate ;  the  idea  is  that  one  or  the  other 
of  the  vertical  pipes  will  have  in  it  a  colder 
column  of  water,  and  there  will  immediately 
set  up  a  circulation,  which  will  continue  steadily 
as  long  as  there  is  cooling  going  on,  or  heating 
either.  Thus  the  water  w^ill  never  freeze  lower 
down  than  the  cross  pipe  in  the  loop.  It  would 
be  well,  if  the  digging  is  not  too  hard,  to  put 
these  loops  down  at  least  8'  in  the  earth. 
Then  if  there  is  at  the  bottom  a  bit  of  large  cast 
pipe,  say  4",  into  which  the  vertical  pipes  are 
screwed,  all  the  better,  since  the  circulation  will 
be  better.  This  arrangement  will  not  freeze 
lower  than  the  cross  in  the  pipe  till  the  whole 
earth  freezes  up.  If  litter  is  placed  around  the 
drinking  bowl,  and  it  is  covered  at  night,  it  will 
be  well-nigh  frost-proof.  Care  must  be  observed 
in  these  drinking  fountains  that  sediment  does 
not  enter  the  pipes ;  the  bowl  may  be  deep,  with 
chance  for  sediment  to  collect  below  the  orifices 
of  the  pipes.  The  illustration  shows  the  coil  or 
return  pipes  both  reaching  to  the  bowl,  one 
higher  than  the  other,  and  with  also  a  connect- 
ing cross  below.  This  lower  cross  should  be  of 
smaller  pipe  than  the  vertical,  perhaps  V/^"  for 


the  main  pipes  and  1"  for  the  cross.  Then 
there  will  always  be  water  circulating,  even 
though  the  fountain  should  freeze,  which  it  will 
not  be  apt  to  do.  And  keep  the  bowl  cleaned 
out.  A  brass  screen  at  the  end  of  each  pipe 
would  be  good.  If  the  bowl  is  a  foot  deeper 
than  the  pipes  all  the  safer. 

BUILDING  A  CEMENT  TANK. 

Fig.  396a  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  square 
cement  water  tank  for  cattle.  The  walls  pene- 
trate the  earth  only  till  they  reach  a  firm 
foundation  and  the  bottom  rests  on  the  earth. 

The  walls  are  36"  high  and  6"  thick  at  top 
and  16"  at  base.  The  bottom  is  4"  thick,  though 
it  may  well  be  thicker  where  it  joins  the  walls, 
so  as  to  strengthen  them  somewhat.  Eein- 
force  this  tank  well  with  steel  rods  spaced  12" 
apart  about  the  wall,  placed  as  shown  in  the  il- 
lustration— these  rods  36"  long  and  ^4"  in 
diameter.  At  the  top  imbed  close  to  the  outer 
edge  rods  24'  long,  bent  around  each  corner  and 
their  ends  lapping.  This  reinforcing  is  impera- 
tively needed  in  so  large  a  tank,  especially  when 
built  in  square  form.  The  bottom  has  no  es- 
pecial need  of  reinforcing,  though  a  few  rods 
through  it  will  tend  to  prevent  its  cracking. 
They  should  bend  up  at  the  ends  and  reach  near- 
ly to  the  top  of  the  wall. 

To  build  this  tank  is  an  extremely  simple 
matter.  One  makes  a  box  for  the  outer  form, 
leveling  it  at  the  top  and  digs  a  trench  for  the 


fp^ 


20- 


THIMBLE 


DRAIMTILE 


'2  ROD  24  LONG 
4:R0DS36'l0N6 


FIG.     396a.       BUILDING     A     CEMENT     TANK. 


,•"■••'.■.■  CL- 


PLANK  aMO 


'4^f?^  FRAME  FOR  SWfEPlHG    WND  MOULD 


SAND 


I":  ■■'■V'. '•'■/.■■;■.; 


COMPLETED   TANK 
COMCffETE 


FIG.     396b.       BUILDING     A     CEMENT     TANK. 


232 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


foundation ;  it  need  be  no  more  than  8"  wide  and 
perhaps  16"  deep,  then  puts  in  his  concrete  floor 
and  on  it  the  box  for  inner  form ;  then  the  walls, 
and  all  of  it  should  be  put  in  on  the  same  day. 
Make  a  rich  mixture,  rather  wet,  so  tliat  it  will 
pour,  and  keep  it  agitated  well  with  sticks  as  it  is 
poured  in  so  as  to  work  all  air  bubbles  to  the 
surface.  Take  off  the  inner  form  in  24  hours 
and  paint  the  inside  with  a  wash  of  cement  and 
water,  thick  as  gravy. 

The  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  must  be  put  in 
before  the  tank  is  built,  the  inlet  pipe  reaching 
just  above  the  water  line  and  if  it  has  a  curving 
piece  or  ''return"  put  on  it  all  the  better.  The 
outlet  pipe  should  be  at  least  2"  in  diameter 
and  have  a  thimble  set  in  the  concrete  bottom. 
Grease  the  threads  well  so  that  it  will  be  easy 
to  screw  in  and  out.  Water  overflows  over  the 
top  edge  of  this  pipe  and  runs  down  into  the  tile 
provided,  or  it  is  screwed  out  and  the  whole  tank 
is  emptied. 

Fig.  3961)  shows  a  tank  that  is  easily  and 
cheaply  made  if  one  has  sand  in  one's  neighbor- 
hood to  use  for  a  form.  To  make  this  form  set  up 
a  piece  of  stiff  pipe,  or  an  iron  bar,  P,  in  the  cen- 
ter of  where  it  is  desired  to  build  the  tank.  In 
line  with  it  and  outside  the  proposed  tank  set 
two  posts,  across  them  a  strong  plank ;  this 
stiffens  up  the  pivot.  Now  we  need  a  frame  for 
sweeping  around  and  making  the  mold.  Four 
boards  nailed  together,  one  of  them  a  wide  one 
hollowed  a  little  to  make  a  neat  curve  as  shown 
on  the  left  hand  side  of  Fig.  396b,  makes  this 
frame.  Now  pile  up  sand  around  the  circle  and 
wet  it  and  pack  it  with  the  shovel,  then  swing 
the  frame  about  and  let  it  scrape  off  the  sand 
till  there  is  a  complete  circle  molded  in  the 
sand  pile.  Then  we  are  ready  to  put  in  con- 
crete. No  inner  form  is  needed ;  as  the  concrete 
is  put  in.  sand  is  thrown  against  it  to  hold  it  in 
place,  after  it  has  been  fairly  vn^cII  placed  with 
the  trowel.  Use  moist  concrete  but  not  too  wet 
to  be  held  in  place. 

After  the  sand  mold  is  ready  then  clean  out 
the  trench  (it  had  better  be  dug  at  the  begin- 
ning) and  fill  it  with  concrete.  If  one  wishes 
to  make  the  outer  surface  of  this  tank  absolutely 
smootJi  and  fine  do  it  in  this  manner :  Screen 
some  coarse  sand  and  mix  with  cement,  1  to  2 ; 
do  not  wet  it.  Spread  it  over  the  sand  mold  in 
its  dry  state  about  1"  thick,  pressing  it  down 
hard  (not  hard  enough  to  disturb  the  packed 
sand).  Use  the  frame  and  sweep  this  if  desired 
simply  shortening  the  frame  1".  When  this  dry 
cement  and  sand  are  in  place  moisten  them  with 
a  fine  sprinkler,  or  the  wet  sand  may  give  it 
enough  moisture  to  make  it  set.  Then  put  in 
the  bottom,  reinforcing  it  somewhat,  say  a  y_i" 


rod  each  16"  in  two  directions,  and  then  the 
Avails,  about  6"  thick  and  for  each  12"  of  verti- 
cal height  lay  in  a  big  wire  or  I/4"  rod  bent  to 
fit.  As  the  concrete  is  placed  and  smoothed  in 
the  inside,  pressing  it  hard  against  the  form, 
throw  up  a  little  sand  against  it  to  hold  it  up. 
At  the  top  edge  place  a  rod  i^"  in  diameter  bent 
to  shape ;  it  need  not  be  continuous ;  short  rods 
hooked  together  will  serve. 

This  sand  mold  is  built  in  less  time  than  the 
square  mold  and  requires  no  lumber.  It  makes 
a  stronger  and  more  beautiful  tank.  With  good 
gravel  mix  II/4  barrels  of  cement  with  each  yard 
of  gravel,  or  if  stone  and  sand  are  used,  mix  1  ce- 
ment, 2  sand,  5  stone.  For  hogs  make  near  by, 
but  not  too  near,  a  smaller  tank,  connecting  the 
two  with  an  underground  pipe.  Do  not  have 
the  hogs  near  enough  to  the  large  tank  so  that 
they  will  get  hurt  by  cattle  and  horses. 


A   CIRCULAR   CONCRETE   TANK. 

Fig.  397  illustrates  a  good  circular  concrete 
watering  tank  that  is  described  as  follows : 
' '  This  tank  holds  enough  water  to  use  for  a  week 
or  more.  Building  the  form  of  a  circular  water- 
ing tank  is  often  rather  difficult  and  costly. 
The  form  usually  costs  more  than  the  concrete 
that  it  molds.  In  this  tank  the  form  costs 
nothing  but  a  little  labor,  and  that  very  much 
less  than  would  have  been  required  for  a  wooden 
form.  The  tank  was  molded  in  sand.  Tlie 
sand  was  afterwards  used  for  other  purposes,  so 
that  really  it  cost  nothing  but  the  placement. 
We  began  the  tank  by  digging  a  narrow  circular 
trench  to  come  just  under  the  wall,  the  circle  10' 
in  diameter.  This  trench  was  dug  down  to  firm 
clay,  and  was  intended  merely  to  make  sure  that 
the  tank  had  good  support  so  that  it  could  not 
settle  unevenly.  The  earth  from  the  trench  was 
thrown  out  to  make  backing  for  the  sand  mold. 
Pipes  were  put  in  for  inlet  and  outlet,  and  there 
seems  but  one  right  way  to  put  in  these  pipes. 
The  inlet  pipe  should  enter  through  the  bottom 
and  rise  a  little  way  above  the  level  of  the  wator 
when  the  tank  is  filled.  We  used  2"  pipe,  which 
is  most  satisfactory  when  water  runs  with  no 
pressure,  this  tank  being  filled  by  gravity  from 
the  overflow  of  other  watering  places  in  the 
sheep  yards. 

"Placing  the  outlet  pipe  is  seldom  done  just 
right.  There  should  be  a  tile  drain  leading 
away,  and  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank  a  2"  pipe 
union  just  flush  with  the  surface,  on  the  under 
side  of  this  union  a  pipe  joining  the  tile  and  on 
the  upper  side  a  short  piece  of  2"  pipe  reaching 
up  to  the  height  that  you  wish  the  water  to  stand 
in   the  tank.      Thus  when  it  is  filled  the   sur- 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


233 


plus  water  overflows  into  this  pipe  and  dis- 
charges into  the  tile  drain.  When  it  is  desired 
to  clean  the  tank  the  pipe  is  unscrewed  from  the 
union  and  all  the  water  rushes  out  into  the  drain. 
Thus  the  pipe  makes  both  plug  and  overflow. 
After  the  pipes  were  ready  and  the  trench  dug 
the  next  step  was  to  erect  a  perpendicular  bar 
at  the  center  of  the  proposed  tank.  Tliis  forms 
the  pivot  for  sweeping  the  mold.  While  we  did 
not  think  of  it  in  time  the  inlet  pipe  might  well 
be  used  for  this  purpose,  piecing  it  out  tem- 
porarily to  make  it  tall  enough.  It  must  be 
exactly  vertical,  and  supported  at  the  upper 
end,  as  there  will  be  put  against  it  quite  a  bit  of 
stress  in  forming  the  mold.  We  placed  a  2"  x 
8"  plank  across  the  site,  supporting  it  by  posts 
at  each  end,  well  braced ;  this  held  the  upper  end 
of  our  pivot,  or  axle.    On  this  pivot  we  fastened 


laid  up.  As  the  concrete  was  mixed  fairly  wet 
(not  sloppy)  the  walls  would  not  quite  lay  up 
without  support,  and  sand  was  shoveled  against 
the  fresh  concrete  on  the  inside  as  fast  as  it  was 
laid  up.  At  intervals  reinforcement  of  heavy 
wire  was  laid  in,  encircling  the  tank,  and  this 
was  made  epecially  strong  at  the  top  rim.  The 
thickness  of  concrete  Avas  about  5"  except  at 
the  top,  where  it  was  made  7". 

"After  it  had  set  for  a  day  the  sand  was 
taken  out  from  the  inside  and  the  surface 
smoothed  up  and  washed  with  pure  cement  and 
water,  thick  as  cream.  After  ten  days  the  sand 
was  taken  away  from  the  outside  and  the  tank 
w^as  complete.  Six  teams  can  water  at  one  time 
without  disturbing  one  another.  A  given  amount 
of  cement  will  go  farther  used  in  this  way  than 
in  any  other  form  that  we  know.     There  should 


TILE  OUTLET 


FOR  DRAIN  PIPE 


FIG.     397.      CIRCULAR    CONCRETE    TANK. 


with  loops  of  wire  a  frame  of  three  boards 
swinging  about  freely  about  the  center,  and  this 
was  to  form  the  sand  into  shape  for  the  mold. 
As  curves  are  as  easily  made  in  such  form  as 
straight  lines  we  made  the  outer  board  curved, 
though  to  have  made  it  straight  and  inclined 
would  have  been  as  well,  and  a  little  easier 
done.  It  is  not  well  to  try  to  make  a  tank  of 
this  sort  with  vertical  walls  since  it  is  so  much 
easier  to  make  the  form  with  sloping  walls,  and 
is  also  easier  to  lay  on  the  concrete.  Damp  sand 
was  then  piled  up  about  the  circumference  of  the 
circle  and  packed  hard  as  it  was  laid  up,  the 
form  being  revolved  about  from  time  to  time 
to  make  the  sand  lie  at  the  right  place,  and  to 
scrape  off  the  surplus  where  it  was  piled  too  far 
in.  In  a  short  time  the  mold  was  complete, 
and  was  as  exactly  round  and  true  as  a  china 
saucer,  which  it  resembled.  Next  the  loose  sand 
was  shoveled  out  from  the  bottom,  the  trench 
cleaned  out,  and  concrete  put  in.  The  bottom 
was  well  reinforced  with  scrap  iron  (a  good 
place  to  get  rid  of  it),  so  that  it  could  not  crack, 
the  trench  filled  at  the  same  time,  then  the  walls 


be  a  curved  return  on  the  upper  end  of  the  inlet 
pipe  merely  to  prevent  sportive  boys  throwing 
pebbles  down  it. ' ' 

A  FARM   TANK. 

The  builder  of  the  cement  watering  tank 
shown  in  Fig.  398  thus  describes  it :  "  My  tank 
is  6'  wide  at  bottom  and  10'  at  top  and  is  26" 
deep.  It  required  but  four  barrels  of  cement 
to  build  it,  with  three  tons  of  crushed  stone.  We 
reinforced  it  well  as  we  built  it,  with  very  heavy 
wire.  It  has  now  gone  safely  through  two  win- 
ters and  I  think  will  be  everlasting.  I  used  a 
tank  heater  part  of  the  time.  Being  saucer- 
shaped  it  cannot  well  burst  from  freezing. 

"To  build  such  a  tank  bank  up  about  for  the 
outer  form  with  earth  and  sand.  This  may 
easily  be  made  into  nice  regular  form  by  use 
of  a  wide  board  fastened  at  one  end  to  a  bar 
thrust  in  the  ground  and  shaped  at  the  other 
end  to  form  the  mold.  This  board  revolving 
about  will  make  the  form  exactly  regular  and 
correct.     The  earth  or  sand  should,  of  course, 


234 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     398.      FARM    TANK     OF    CONCRETE. 


"be  fine  and  backed  nicely.  "We  covered  this  earth 
form  with  burlap  and  then  with  building  paper 
and  laid  the  concrete  directly  on  it.  The  paper 
dried  on  the  concrete  and  made  a  nice  covering 
for  the  outside.  No  inner  form  was  needed,  as 
we  used  the  concrete  fairly  stiff,  as  wet,  however, 


as  it  would  stand  up  at  the  desired  slope.  "We 
made  the  thickness  about  6",  putting  in  the  bot- 
tom first,  and  then  the  sides  in  regular  courses, 
laying  in  plenty  of  wires  as  we  went  along.  "We 
washed  it  inside  with  pure  cement  when  it  was 
set.     There  was  only  one  piece  of  wood  needed 


FIG.  399.   OUTSIDE  PLASTERING  OF  A  FARM  COTTAGE. 


CONCRETE   CONSTRUCTION. 


235 


in  this  form ;  the  board  and  the  time  in  doing  the 
work  was  less  than  would  have  been  had  we  built 
a  form  of  wood." 

BUILDING    CONCRETE    HOUSE    WALLS. 

How  may  a  form  be  built  to  construct  hollow 
walls  of  concrete! 

It  is  not  a  difficult  problem,  so  the  inner  air 
space  is  large  enough  to  permit  comfortable 
working.  The  design  (Fig.  400)  shows  how  a 
wall  may  be  readily  built  of  two  walls,  each  3" 
thick,  and  an  air  space  between  them  of  10".  The 
only  trick  is  to  get  out  the  plank  of  the  inner 
form,  and  this  is  readily  done  when  the  inner 
studding  of  2"  x  6"  is  beveled  so  that  it  may 
readily  be  twisted  to  loosen  the  planking.  It 
should   not   be   struck   but    gently   and    evenly 


twisted,  when  it  will  release  the  planking.  The 
ties  across  the  wall  are  best  made  of  vitrified 
paving  brick,  if  they  can  be  gotten  12"  or  14" 
long;  if  they  cannot  be  had  of  that  length  the 
inner  form  may  be  narrower.  Wires,  which 
should  be  galvanized,  hold  the  outer  studding 
together;  these  wires  are  cut  and  remain  im- 
bedded in  the  wall.  If  no  paving  bricks  are  to 
be  had  good  hard-burned  drain  tiles  may  make 
the  connection  between  the  two  walls,  or  short 
pieces  of  iron  rods,  or  even  very  heavy  galvan- 
ized wires,  say  about  No.  1  size,  cut  ancl  the  ends 
bent  over.  Such  a  wall  is  built  up  a  few  feet  at 
a  time  and  allowed  to  set  and  harden  somewhat 
before  the  inner  forms  are  taken  out  and  raised 
up.  It  will  prove  cold  and  damp-resistant.  The 
inner  surface  will  be  plastered ;  the  outer  surface 
may  be  simply  roughened  a  little  with  a  tool 


WIRETIE^ 


WIRE  TIE 


A.  CONCRETE  3  THICK 


B.  2'x8'  PLANK 


C.  2'x6"  STUDDING 
0.2x6"  STUDDING 

E.  PAVING  BRICK  TIE 

F.  2"x8"PLANK0FINNERF0RM 
6.  CONCRETE  FOUNDATION 


CROSS 


ECTION 


NNER  STUDDING 


FIG.     400.      BUILDING    CONCRETE    HOUSE    WALLS. 


236 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


made  for  that  purpose  or  washed  with  the  proper 
acid  to  make  it  rough  and  of  uniform  surface, 
or  it  may  also  be  plastered,  though  this  does  not 
usually  give  so  pleasing  a  surface  as  the  rough 
one. 


At  the  top  and  bottom  the  walls  will  be  hol- 
low. The  two  walls  are  bridged  over  for  the 
top,  tiles  or  slate  being  used,  taking  care  that 
they  do  not  cover  more  than  about  1"  of  the  wall 
at  the  inner  side. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


SILOS. 

LOCATION  OF  A  SILO. 

When  possible  the  silo  should  be  located  in 
the  feeding  barn,  since  it  not  only  brings  the 
cost  of  building  within  the  reach  of  every  one 
who  is  really  in  need  of  a  silo,  but  greatly  facili- 
tates the  handling  of  the  silage  when  feeding  it 
out.  Depth  in  a  silo  is  always  preferable  to 
breadtli,  so  that  in  the  case  of  basement  barns 
it  is  advisable  to  let  the  silo  reach  from  the 
top  of  the  barn  posts  to  the  ground  floor  of  the 
basement;  a  door  or  opening  can  then  be  made 
from  the  silo  directly  into  the  basement  where 
the  silage  is  to  be  fed.  The  next  best  location 
is  adjoining  the  feeding  stable.  In  most  dairy 
stables  the  cows  are  stanchioned  in  two  long 
rows  facing  each  other,  and  whenever  it  is  pos- 
sible it  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  silo  can 
be  entered  from  the  end  of  this  feeding  alley. 
A  wooden  track  can  be  laid  along  the  center  of 
the  feed-way  and  into  the  silo,  upon  which  a 
low-Avheeled  car  can  be  operated  to  distribute 
the  feed.  If  the  silo  building  is  located  entirely 
separate  it  should  be  planned  to  load  the  silage 
into  a  cart,  which  can  be  driven  into  the  feeding 
barn,  thus  delivering  the  silage  with  little  labor 
directly  to  the  stock.  The  idea  of  convenience 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  for  by  exercising  a 
little  thought  and  judgment  the  labor  of  waiting 
on  the  stock  through  the  long  feeding  season 
can  be  greatly  reduced. 

FILLING  SILOS. 

The  cost  of  putting  corn  into  the  silo  depends 
largely  on  the  advantage  taken  of  all  the  little 
devices  that  are  calculated  to  lighten  and  reduce 
the  labor  of  harvesting  and  drawing  to  the  silo. 
By  the  use  of  the  corn  binder  for  cutting  in  the 
field  and  conveniently  equipped  wagons  for  haul- 
ing there  will  be  no  more  hard  work  connected 
with  securing  the  fodder  for  filling  the  silo  than 
there  would  be  in  harvesting  a  clover  or  grass 
crop.      Many    farms    are    supplied    with    low- 


wheeled  wagons  or  trucks.  A  very  simple  and 
practical  way  of  equipping  the  ordinary  high- 
wheeled  farm  wagon  is  shown  in  Fig.  401. 
This  rack  is  made  of  2"  x  8"  plank,  16'  long, 
one  end  of  each  being  placed  on  top  of  the  for- 
ward bolster ;  the  other  ends  pass  under  the  rear 
axle  and  are  chained  or  bolted  up  tight  to  it : 
these  two  pieces  make  the  foundation  of  the 
rack.  The  wagon  is  coupled  out  as  far  as  the 
planks  will  allow.  On  top  of  the  plank  are 
placed  four  cross-pieces,  equally  distant  from 
each  other,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  These  cross- 
pieces  are  2"x4"  and  should  be  about  7'  long; 
upon  these  are  laid  inch  boards  parallel  with  the 
wagon.  The  load  is  of  course  placed  wholly  in 
front  of  the  rear  wheels,  but  the  rack  is  suffi- 
ciently large  and  low  enough  to  enable  a  man 
to  put  on  a  ton  of  green  corn  from  the  ground 
without  having  to  climb  up  on  the  load  or  hand 
it  to  a  second  person  to  deposit. 

While  it  is  true  that  silage  cut  fine  may  pack 
somewhat  closer  than  that  cut  long,  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  there  is  any  material  gain  in  the 
operation ;  by  cutting  fine  more  of  the  inner 
parts  of  the  stalks  are  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
perhaps  more  fermentation  induced  than  with 
longer  cuts.  There  is  nothing  gained  by  cutting 
fodder  fine  instead  of  coarse,  provided  stock  eats 
it  equally  well  in  both  cases;  the  gain  in  cut- 
ting, which  is  often  very  great,  comes  mainly 
from  getting  consumed  that  which  would  other- 
wise be  wasted.  In  the  case  of  silage,  there  be- 
ing no  necessity  for  cutting  the  fodder  in  order 
to  have  it  eaten,  the  length  of  the  cut  appears 
to  turn  upon  somewhat  closer  packing  on  the 
one  side  and  extra  expense  of  fine  cutting  on 
the  other.  With  ample  power  and  a  modern 
feed-cutter  a  silo  can  be  filled  in  about  half  the 
time  taken  by  old  methods. 

When  corn  has  reached  the  proper  stage  of 
maturity  it  is  not  necessary  that  it  be  wilted 
before  putting  into  the  silo  in  order  to  make 
the  so-called  sweet  silage;  only  the  immature 
fodder   needs   wilting;    such    should   be   wilted 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


237 


from  about  24  to  48  hours,  if  possible, 
before  putting  into  the  silo.  Varieties  that  ma- 
ture, if  left  until  the  ears  begin  to  glaze,  can 
be  put  into  the  silo  immediately  after  being  cut 
■with  satisfactory  results,  provided  there  is  no 
outside  moisture  on  the  corn  as  it  goes  into  the 
silo;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  suspend  operations 
every  other  day  in  order  to  let  the  silage  in  the 
silo  reach  a  certain  temperature  before  filling 
can  be  continued.  If  the  corn  is  sufficiently  ma- 
lure,  and  is  put  into  the  silo  without  rain  or 
dew,  there  need  be  no  fears  about  the  quality 
of  the  silage,  whether  put  in  slowly  or  rapidly. 
There  is  a  limit  to  putting  dry  or  excessively 
wilted  corn  into  the  silo  beyond  wiiich  we  dare 
not  go.  When  the  corn  has  lost  enough  water 
to  cause  the  leaves  to  rustle  and  break  in  han- 
dling it  does  not  pack  closely  enough  in  the  silo 
to  exclude  the  air,  and  on  opening  the  pit  it 
will  be  found  that  the  silage  is  tire-fanged  and 
permeated  all  through  with  a  white  mold. 
There  is  another  reason  why  the  corn  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  so  dry  even  if  there 
were  no  trouble  about  its  keeping  in  the  silo : 
when  dry  corn  is  put  into  the  silo  we  have  lost 
the  succulent  quality  of  the  silage  that  makes  it 
especially  desirable.  Having  once  commenced 
to  fill  the  silo  the  work  can  be  crowded  right 
along  by  observing  the  conditions  mentioned. 
In  case  of  an  accident  or  break-down  it  will  do 
no  harm  to  suspend  work  for  a  day  or  two,  but 
if  left  longer  than  this  the  silage  to  a  depth  of 
two  or  three  inches  usually  begins  to  mold. 
"When  filling  is  completed  a  foot  and  one-half 
of  chaffed  straw,  marsh  hay  or  cornstalks  will 
make  a  sufficient  covering.  The  use  of  weights 
is  now  obsolete.  The  silo  should  be  examined 
daily  for  a  couple  of  wxeks  and  the  covering 


FIG.     401.       RACK     FOR     DRAWING     FODDER     CORN. 

pressed  down  until  the  settling  has  ceased. 

The  question  is  often  asked  if  one  crop  can 
be  placed  on  top  of  another  in  the  silo,  pro- 
vided that  the  first  has  only  partially  filled  it. 
]Most  certainly ;  if  one  crop,  as  clover,  for  exam- 
ple, only  partly  fills  the  silo,  when  the  corn  crop 
has  matured  the  covering  of  the  clover  can  be 
removed  or  left  on,  as  desired,  and  the  other 
crop  placed  on  top  of  it.  By  filling  at  different 
times  much  more  can  be  got  into  the  silo  than 
if  a  single  crop  is  placed  therein  by  rapid  filling. 
Even  with  the  slow  filling,  silage  settles  consid- 


erably after  the  silo  is  closed  up ;  with  very 
rapid  filling  it  may  settle  as  much  as  two-fifths, 
or  even  one-half.  Under  any  system  it  is  well 
to  allow  two  or  three  days'  settling  at  the  last 
and  to  fill  up  the  silo  again  so  as  to  get  in  all 
the  feed  possible. 

AN  ILLINOIS  SILO. 

The  well-known  dairyman,  H.  B.  Gurler,  of 
DeKalb  County,  111.,  thus  describes  several 
types  of  silos  and  their  construction :  ]\Iy  first 
silo  was  built  about  25  years  ago.  It  was  rec- 
tangular in  form,  20'  deep  and  sheeted  inside 
the  studding  with  a  single  sheeting  of  first-class 
match  %"  pine.  A  few  years  later  I  built 
another  silo  with  three  compartments  and 
double-sheeted  the  inside  walls,  using  paper  be- 
tween the  two  courses  of  lumber.  In  about  seven 
years  these  double  walls  began  to  show  decay 
and  at  the  end  of  ten  years  I  was  compelled  to 
tear  them  out  and  put  round  silos  in  their  place. 
A  double  wooden  wall  is  the  last  kind  of  a  silo 
I  would  build  if  I  were  to  build  another,  as  the 
moisture  gets  between  the  two  layers  of  wood 
and  does  not  dry,  causing  decay,  and  the  walls 
are  decayed  beyond  usefulness  in  a  few  years. 
If  one  will  persist  in  using  wood  let  it  be  of  but 
one  thickness  and  of  a  quality  that  Avill  be  sound 
and  make  as  near  an  air-tight  wall  as  possible. 

Five  years  ago  I  built  my  first  round  cement 
silos,  building  three  that  season.  The  following 
year  I  built  one  38'  in  diameter,  wiiich  I  con- 
sider too  large,  as  I  am  compelled  to  feed  about 
200  head  of  cattle  when  it  is  opened  to  keep 
ahead  of  decay.  If  I  am  feeding  less  than  that 
number  there  is  danger  of  the  silage  being  ex- 
posed so  long  that  decay  will  begin  and  then 
trouble  begins,  especially  if  it  is  being  fed  to 
cows  in  milk.  Twenty  feet  in  diameter  is  a 
convenient  size  and  I  would  not  build  with  my 
present  knowledge  any  larger  in  diameter,  but 
build  as  deep  as  I  could  conveniently  in  our 
prairie  country.  (See  Fig.  402.)  Three  of  mine 
are  38'  deep  and  three  are  24'  deep.  I  prefer 
the  deeper  ones.  With  five  years'  experience  I 
am  confident  that  the  round  cement  silo  is  tlie 
most  economical  kind  to  build  that  I  know  any- 
thing about.  The  cement  preserves  the  silage 
and  also  preserves  tlie  wood,  as  it  prevents  mois- 
ture from  reaching  the  wood  from  the  silage. 
In  case  the  cement  cracks  ( I  have  had  very  little 
trouble  in  that  way)  go  over  it  with  a  wash  of 
cement  the  same  as  a  cistern  is  repaired  when 
it  cracks.  I  find  this  to  fill  all  cracks  perfectly, 
so  that  one  would  not  know  that  there  had  ever 
been  cracks.  A  cement  silo  cannot  be  built  as 
cheaply  as  a  wood  one  if  the  first  cost  alone  is 


238 


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FARM  BUILDINGS. 


_E]uLVATIOn 


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FIG.     402.      CONSTRUCTION    AND    TYPE    OF    ILLINOIS    SILO. 


considered,  but  if  the  matter  of  durability  is  three  years  giving  them  a  coating  of  cement 

taken  into  consideration  I  fully  believe  that  they  wash.     This  we  do  as  we  fill  them,  applying  as 

are  the  most  economical  to  build.     I  believe  my  high  as  we  can  reach  from  the  ground  and  wlien 

cement  silos  can  be  kept  in  perfect  condition  for  we  have  them  filled  nearly  to  this  point  put  the 

50  years  at  the  simple  expense  of  once  in  about  wash  on  to  another  section  and  so  on  to  the  top. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


239 


The  silo  that  I  bviilt  in  1898  on  which  I  put 
no  roof  cost  me  12i/2  cents  per  square  foot  of 
surface  wall.  To  illustrate :  A  silo  20'  in  di- 
ameter is  63'  in  circumference,  and  if  38'  deep 
or  high  it  has  2,400  surface  feet,  which  at  121/0 
cents  per  foot  would  cost  $300,  and  it  would 
hold  250  tons.  Some  would  figure  it  to  hold 
300  tons.  This  does  not  include  the  cost  of  a 
roof,  which  after  three  years'  experience  I  am 
confident  is  more  a  matter  of  convenience  than 
of  necessity.  I  do  not  believe  it  adds  a  dollar 
to  the  value  of  the  contents  of  a  silo.  I  do 
know  tliat  the  roof  is  very  much  in  the  way 
when  we  reach  the  top  in  filling,  as  a  man  6' 
tall  is  constantly  bumping  his  head  against  the 
roof. 

My  silos  all  have  clay  floors  and  the  silage 
keeps  as  w^ell  on  clay  as  on  cement.  If  you  need 
to  keep  the  rats  out  cement  the  bottom.  The 
foundation  may  be  of  stone,  brick  or  cement 
(grout)  to  a  proper  distance  above  ground.  I 
used  2"  X  4"  studding,  12  in  centers,  but  I  am 
certain  that  they  might  have  been  put  15  to  16 
in  centers  just  as  well,  as  all  the  object  of  the 
studding  is  to  hold  the  lumber  together,  as  there 
no  lateral  pressure  can  reach  the  studding  un- 
less the  luml)er  sheeting  is  first  pulled  in  two 
by  the  pressure,  and  the  pressure  recjuired  to 
break  this  circular  sheeting  is  something  sur- 
prising. The  inside  sheeting  was  secured  by 
taking  6"  fencing  and  having  it  resawed,  mak- 
ing the  material  a  little  less  than  14"  thick. 
On  this  were  put  laths  made  from  the  same 
material,  the  laths  being  made  with  beveled 
edges  so  that  when  nailed  onto  the  sheeting 
horizontally  the  same  as  the  sheeting  is  put  on 
we  have  a  dove-tailed  joint  between  the  laths 
to  receive  the  cement,  preventing  its  loosening 
until  it  is  broken.  The  patent  grooved  laths 
might  be  used,  but  they  cannot  be  sprung  to 
a  20'  circle. 

Tlie  first  three  circular  silos  that  I  built  were 
put  in  a  row  and  enclosed  with  a  frame  build- 
ing like  a  barn.  This  obviated  the  need  of  sheet- 
ing outside  the  studding.  Not  being  certain 
that  I  had  sufficient  resistance  to  the  lateral 
pressure  in  the  inside  sheeting,  laths  and  ce- 
ment, I  put  wooden  hoops  outside  the  studding, 
using  the  same  material  that  I  did  for  the  in- 
side sheeting,  putting  it  on  double  and  breaking 
joints.  I  learned  that  I  could  secure  more  re^ 
sistance  for  the  money  in  wood  than  I  could 
in  any  form  of  iron  hoops  and  where  protected 
from  the  weather  they  were  all  right.  For  out- 
side sheeting  I  used  in  one  case  the  same  mate- 
rial that  was  used  for  sheeting  inside.  This  acts 
as  weather-boarding  and  also  helps  to  resist  the 
lateral  pressure.    For  the  cement  work  use  none 


but  the  best  (I  used  the  Portland),  and  mix 
it  one  part  cement  and  two  parts  clean  sand. 
Be  careful  not  to  have  any  clay  or  loam  in  it. 

A  SILO  OF  WOOD  AND  CEMENT. 

According  to  Joseph  E.  Wing  this  is  the 
cheapest  and  perhaps  the  most  economical  silo 
yet  devised.  He  thus  explains  the  method  of 
construction : 

Begin  by  digging  a  trench  as  narrow  as  you 
can  with  your  post  hole  diggers  and  3'  deep, 
M'idening  it  at  the  bottom.  This  trench  will  be 
circular,  of  the  diameter  you  wish  your  silo — 
12',  14'  or  16'.  I  would  not  build  wider  than 
16'  with  this  form  of  construction.  Fill  the 
trench  with  good  cement  concrete,  ramming  it 
hard,  and  extend  it  up  above  ground  2'.  It 
should  be  made  8"  thick  above  ground.  To  build 
this  make  a  form  of  thin  boards  bent  in  a  cir- 
cle like  a  cheese  box.  Make  the  top  of  the  con- 
crete exactly  level.  Procure  common  rough  barn 
siding  or  fencing;  for  a  silo  of  small  diameter 
6"  fencing  will  be  good;  for  a  wide  silo  the 
stuff  may  be  wider.  Make  two  hoops  of  boards 
14"  X  6",  5"  larger  than  the  inside  circle  of  the 
concrete  foundation.  Treble  the  Vo"  boards, 
breaking  joints.  Lay  these  hoops  on  the  wall 
and  take  a  piece  of  siding,  set  it  up  inside  the 
circle  and  nail  fast,  seeing  that  it  is  vertical. 
Set  up  four  of  these  boards  about  the  wall,  then 
plumb  them  carefully  and  brace  them,  raising 
up  the  other  circle  and  nail  it  at  the  top.  If 
you  wisli  to  go  higher  let  the  upper  hoop  extend 
above  the  top  of  the  boards  3".  It  will  then 
serve  to  catch  the  lower  ends  of  the  second  set 
of  boards.  Now  nail  on  all  the  boards,  siding 
as  though  siding  a  barn.  Nail  barrel  staves 
lightly  at  the  middle  to  hold  in  place.  Leave 
an  open  strip  3'  wide  where  the  doors  will  come. 
You  now  have  a  big  barrel  made  of  1"  boards 
and  nothing  whatever  yet  to  give  strength  or 
tightness. 

The  bottom  of  the  lower  door  should  be  7'  up 
from  the  ground;  side  up  to  that  point.  At  the 
side  of  the  doors,  on  the  inside,  nail  2"  x  6" 
studding,  flat-ways,  directly  to  the  boards  to 
strengthen  them  there  and  make  a  finish.  Pro- 
vide stuff  I/2"  or  %"  thick,  3"  wide,  and  begin 
to  put  it  horizontally  around  the  outside  of 
silo,  spacing  3"  apart.  Nail  it  well  and  break 
joints.  On  this  shingle  the  wall.  Let  the  stuff 
go  across  the  doors  and  be  especially  careful  to 
select  good  material  there  and  to  place  it  ju- 
diciously. Doors  need  not  be  closer  than  4'  to 
each  other.  It  is  easy  to  lift  silage  2'  and 
then  to  dig  down  2'  to  a  lower  door.  It  will 
add  to  the  strength  to  make  them  6'  between. 

If  one   length  of  the  boards  cannot   be   ob- 


240 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


tained  set  up  another  set  on  top  of  the  first.  It 
is  just  as  well  to  do  this  in  any  case.  A  silo 
should  be  at  least  30'  deep.  You  may  use  16' 
stuff  for  bottom  set  and  14'  for  the  top.  That 
with  the  wall  gives  a  32'  silo.  Run  a  few  strips 
of  strap  iron  up  the  siding  to  hold  the  two  sec- 
tions together  in  a  cyclone.  When  all  is  stripped 
with  tlie  1/^"  X  3"  stuff  you  have  a  wall  that 
cannot  be  rent  asunder.  The  tensile  strength  of 
wood  is  enormous.  Cheap  elm  or  green  oak  will 
bend  easily  and  make  good  material  for  this 
stripping. 

Lath  the  inside  with  common  plastering  laths 
but  space  them  1"  apart.  Nail  a  row  of  them 
riglit  around,  then  another  row  right  on  top  of 
the  first,  breaking  joints  and  allowing  the  sec- 
ond lath  to  project  above  the  under  one  14", 
thus  giving  a  secure  hold  for  the  plaster.  These 
plastering  laths  alone  would  hold  the  silo  from 
spreading.  Plaster  with  best  Portland  cement 
into  which  sufficient  fibrous  gypsum  has  been 
mixed  to  make  it  adhesive.  Now  and  then 
whitewash  it  with  pure  cement  after  being  used 
or  coat  it  with  pitch  to  preserve  it  from  the  acid 
of  the  silage.  Bevel  the  2"  x  6"s  that  form  the 
door  jambs  to  receive  the  doors. 

This  silo  has  had  tests  in  Michigan  and  else- 
where and  has  enthusiastic  adherents.  It  should 
endure  for  many  years  and  has  the  advantage 
of  the  stave  silo  in  that  it  will  never  blow  down 
nor  collapse.  In  roofing  it  at  the  top  bend 
around  and  nail  five  thicknesses  of  the  VV'  stuff 
to  make  a  plate.  Get  2"  x  12"  plank  long 
enough  for  rafters  and  rip  them  diagonally  from 
corner  to  corner.  This  should  be  done  in  a 
mill,  where  it  is  done  very  rapidly.  Set  them 
up  with  points  together  and  toe-nail  together, 
then  shingle.  This  makes  a  slightly  conical  roof. 
Make  it  steep ;  it  looks  better  and  enables  you  to 
blow  a  mound  of  silage.  Leave  the  earthen 
floor. 

THE  V^ING  CEMENT  SILO. 

This  silo,  built  by  Joseph  E.  "Wing,  has  a  wall 
6"  thick  at  the  base  thinning  to  4"  at  top.  It  is 
16'  in  diameter  and  30'  high.     (See  Fig.  403.) 

Mr.  Wing  thus  tells  how  it  is  built :  We 
bought  a  quantity  of  2"  x  7"  hemlock  staves  to 
form  the  inner  core  of  the  form.  In  erecting 
this  core  we  nail  a  14"  strip  6"  wide  horizon- 
tally about  the  staves  on  the  inside  as  we  set 
them  up ;  this  keeps  them  in  place  and  is  easily 
torn  off  when  taking  down  the  wood.  The  staves 
we  beveled  slightly  as  silo  staves  are  beveled.  I 
think  now  that  to  have  grooved  them  and  put 
in  the  grooves  short  metal  tongues  at  three  or 
four  points  along  the  length  so  that  they  would 
have  been  unable  to  move  against  each  other 


would  have  been  wise ;  they  could  have  been  set 
up  more  rapidly.  We  set  them  up  much  as  you 
would  set  up  any  wooden  silo,  a  16'  length  first, 
using  a  wooden  hoop  2"  x  6"  built  of  i/o"  stuff 
as  a  form  to  build  against,  this  hoop  being  on 
the  inside  of  the  silo.  Each  stave  was  spiked 
to  this  hoop ;  when  the  lower  section  was  fin- 
ished the  spikes  were  withdrawn  and  the  hoop 
raised  up  for  the  second  form. 

The  outer  wall  of  the  form  was  of  14"  oak 
stuff,  8"  wide,  the  boards  running  about  the  silo 
horizontally  and  held  in  place  by  2"  x  4"  stud- 
ding set  about  2"  apart.  To  hold  these  stud- 
ding at  .the  right  distance  from  the  inner  core 
they  were  wired  in  three  places  with  No.  12 
wire,  boring  through  the  staves  of  the  inner 
form  for  this  and  passing  the  wires  through 
these  holes  and  fastening  by  letting  the  loop 
pass  about  a  big  nail.  The  wires  we  learned 
should  be  twisted  to  get  the  slack  all  out  of 
them.  They  pass  through  the  wall  and  are  left 
in. 

In  beginning  we  dug  a  circular  trench  2' 
deep,  widening  it  at  the  bottom  to  give  a  good 


FIG.     403.       WING     CEMENT     SILO. 

bearing  and  filling  it  first.  The  concrete  was 
raised  by  means  of  a  pole  derrick,  which  should 
be  about  6'  higher  than  the  silo  is  designed. 
This  derrick  is  easily  revolved  and  is  guyed  in 
four  or  six  directions  with  long  and  heavy  guy 


MI8CELLANE0  US. 


241 


wires.  Scaffolding  is  carried  up  as  you  go. 
Concrete  mortar  is  lifted  up  by  horse-power, 
swung  in  place  rapidly  and  deposited  in  the 
forms  with  shovels.  After  one  knows  how,  silos 
may  be  very  rapidly  built  in  this  manner.  Our 
men  were  all  our  regular  farm  laborers.  We 
think  this  silo  will  be  a  permanent  thing. 

The  thinness  of  the  walls  forbids  putting 
much  if  any  dependence  in  their  strength  to  re- 
sist bursting.  The  bursting  pressure  of  silage 
at  30'  depth  is  330  pounds  per  square  foot,  ac- 
cording to  King.  If  your  silo  is  16'  in  diameter 
it  must  therefore  have  strength  to  resist  2,640 
pounds  pressure  for  each  foot  in  height.  As 
you  go  up  the  pressure  decreases,  of  course. 
Concrete  should  have  a  tensile  strength  of  about 
200  to  500  pounds  per  square  inch.  We  imbed 
wires  or  rods  directly  in  the  mortar  to  hold  the 
strain.  Iron  hoops  designed  to  hold  wooden 
silos  may  be  put  in.  Wire  is  rather  cheaper  and 
more  easily  handled.  Get  No.  00  wire.  It  is 
hard  to  handle,  so  reel  it  out  across  the  field 
and  rig  a  lever  of  a  6"  sapling  about  20'  long 
and  put  a  team  on  it  across  a  stump  and  stretch 
it  till  it  lies  straight.  Then  cut  it  into  lengths 
long  enough  to  reach  around  the  silo  and  6' 
longer.  At  each  board  lay  in  a  wire  or  two  be- 
fore you  put  in  cement,  wrap  the  ends  about 
each  other  and  turn  them  back ;  the  cement  will 
not  let  them  slip  when  it  is  hard.  These  en- 
circling wires  should  be  in  the  middle  of  the 
thickness  of  the  wall,  so  insert  upright  wires 
in  the  wall  about  3'  apart ;  they  will  also  pre- 
vent cracks  and  will  hold  the  horizontal  wires 
in  place.  No.  00  wire  has  a  tensile  strength  of 
about  7,000  pounds.  If  the  silo  is  to  be  30' 
deep  begin  by  putting  one  at  the  ground  level, 
then  up  8"  put  in  another  and  at  each  8"  board. 
This  is  a  little  stronger  than  is  absolutely  needed, 
but  I  do  like  a  thing  to  be  safe  and  wire  is 
not  very  costly.  It  will  not  rust  in  the  cement. 
At  the  doors,  which  need  not  be  closer  to  each 
other  than  6'  and  should  not  be  nearer  the 
ground  than  7',  place  upright  rods  1"  in  diam- 
eter on  each  side  and  loop  the  wires  about  them. 
Across  the  bottom  and  top  of  the  doors  pass 
similar  iron  5'  long  with  the  ends  turned  up  2" 
and  curving  as  tlie  curve  of  the  wall. 

We  mixed  our  concrete  at  a  strength  of  one 
barrel  of  cement  to  a  yard  of  gravel.  It  seems 
to  be  very  hard.  We  washed  the  wall  with  a 
brush  with  a  wash  of  nearly  pure  cement,  water 
and  a  little  sand.  We  put  a  roof  on,  as  the  silo 
may  hold  silage  until  summer  time  some  years 
and  roofs  are  not  very  costly.  The  floor  is  of 
clay,  which  it  seems  is  better  than  anything  else. 
It  is  not  excavated  at  all.  The  pole  may  be 
sawed  in  sections  and  thrown  out  of  the  window 


or  left  in  the  silo  until  it  is  fed  out  and  sawed 
off  then. 

If  you  are  building  of  a  different  dimension 
remember  the  rule  for  calculating  the  pressure 
on  your  walls  is  to  assume  the  normal  pressure 
at  a  depth  of  30'  to  be  330  pounds  per  scjuare 
foot  and  to  multiply  this  by  one-half  the  diam- 
eter of  your  silo  wall.  Be  sure  you  put  in 
enough  and  put  no  dependence  in  the  cement  for 
resisting  bursting  strain.  The  thin  wall  is  very 
much  cheaper  than  the  thick  one  and  just  as 
good,  if  the  steel  is  there. 

The  oak  stuff  that  makes  the  outside  of  the 
form  warps  and  cannot  readily  be  used  again 
for  silo  building,  though  it  is  useful  in  a  hun- 
dred other  ways;  the  inner  shell  is  practically 
uninjured  by  the  use  made  of  it. 

All  concrete  work  should  be  moderately  wet 
down,  never  made  sloppy,  and  rammed  hard  in 
the  mould  until  moisture  rises  on  top.  If  it  is 
made  very  wet  it  is  nearly  ruined.  It  should 
not  be  wet  until  just  as  it  is  ready  to  use. 

I  think  a  4"  wall  is  right  and  just  as  good  as 
one  18"  thick,  barring  possible  freezing.  I  in- 
sist that  abundant  steel  must  be  used  and  advise 
coating  the  inside  with  hot  pitch  to  make  it 
acid  and  air-proof. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  complete  form  for 
the  entire  silo.  We  set  up  first  a  16'  length  of 
inner  staves,  afterward  another  16'  length  on 
these,  thus  needing  as  much  timber  for  this  in- 
ner form  as  is  needed  to  build  a  complete  wood- 
en silo.  We  now  think  this  a  mistake.  These 
staves  can  as  well  be  in  8'  lengths  and  after  two 
sets  are  up  the  lower  set  is  well  taken  away  and 
moved  up,  next  the  second  set  moved  up,  thus 
proceeding  until  the  silo  is  tall  enough.  These 
staves  should  be  all  accurately  fitted  together 
before  work  is  begun.  There  should  be  three 
dowels  or  pins  in  each  stave  and  holes  exactly 
corresponding  on  the  other  side.  These  dowels 
shoulcl  be  made  of  14"  steel.  They  should  fit 
tightly  on  the  one  side  and  the  holes  to  engage 
them  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  them  to 
enter  and  remove  easily.  Thus  equipped  the 
staves  are  very  rapidly  set  up,  as  each  one  sup- 
ports the  one  next  to  it,  and  the  dowels  prevent 
them  crowding  in  when  the  concrete  is  stamped 
behind  them.  A  set  of  these  staves  will  last  for 
many  years.  The  first  year's  use  of  this  silo  dis- 
closed less  than  10  pounds  of  spoiled  silage. 

A  SILO  OF  CONCRETE  BLOCKS. 

A  silo  built  of  concrete  blocks  has  been  de- 
signed by  Joseph  E.  Wing.  He  says  the  blocks 
are  easy  to  make  and  will  lay  without  mortar 
under  them  or  at  the  ends  and  make  an  air- 


.242 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


tight  and  water-tight  job.  There  will  be  no 
need  for  a  skilled  mason  in  laying  them.  They 
are  made  just  right  in  length  and  curve  to 
make  the  wall,  and  where  windows  come  they 
can  be  sawed  in  two  or  shorter  ones  made  to  fit 
the  openings.  Joints  are  broken  just  as  in  any 
stonework  and  the  effect  is  pleasing. 

The  block  is  made  in  a  wooden  mold,  and 
after  being  set  the  mold  is  taken  off  and  the 
block  hardened  before  being  used,  as  any  arti- 
ficial stone  blocks  are  made.  It  consists  of  two 
pieces,  each  2"  thick,  8"  high  and  of  convenient 
length,  say  3'.  These  pieces  are  curved  to  fit 
the  desired  diameter  of  the  silo  and  are  spaced 
2"  from  each  other.     They  are  held  together  by 


FIG.     404.       SILO    OF    CONCRETE    BLOCKS     (CROSS-SECTION). 

square  loops  of  steel  wire,  large  size,  such  as 
No.  4.  This  wire  is  bent  in  a  form  into  the 
desired  shape  and  two  pieces  are  put  in  each 
block.  Being  very  large  stiff  wire  the  blocks 
keep  their  position  exactly  when  made  even, 
though  they  do  not  at  any  part  touch  each  other. 
This  forms  a  stone  block  6"  wide  (it  may  be 
made  8"  if  desired)  and  with  a  hollow  clear 
through  its  length  of  2".  These  blocks  may  also 
be  easily  made  in  two  parts;  in  one  part  is 
molded  two  bolts  6"  from  each  end;  they  are 
bolts  14"  X  7".  In  the  inner  block,  the  mate, 
two  holes  corresponding  with  these  bolts  would 
be  molded  with  a  14"  depression  in  the  inner 
surface  of  the  block.  After  they  were  hard 
the  two  parts  would  be  fitted  together,  nuts  put 
on,  the  depression  making  the  nut  flush  with 
the  inside  of  the  wall,  when  the  double  block 
laid  in  the  wall  and  the  channel  filled  as  de- 


scribed. Afterward  the  projecting  bolt  ends 
would  be  smoothly  clipped  oft'.  The  bolts  would 
not  show  on  the  outside  at  all.  This  block  would 
present  no  difficulties  in  manufacture  whatever, 
and  when  once  completed  the  two  original  blocks 
and  the  core  would  be  inseparably  united.  The 
foundation  is  made  below  ground  in  a  narrow 
trench  in  which  ordinary  concrete  is  rammed. 
Level  it  and  lay  the  first  course  of  hollow  blocks. 
Fill  the  channel  with  rather  thin  concrete,  lay 
in  a  No.  4  wire  to  hold  the  wall  from  spreading 
and  lay  the  next  course,  breaking  the  joints 
carefully.  Again  fill  the  channel  with  cement, 
lay  down  another  wire  and  another  layer  of 
blocks  and  so  on  up  to  the  windows.  At  the 
windows  (and  the  lower  one  should  be  up  7' 
and  the  next  one  up  6'  higher)  one  can  fit  in  a 
good  wooden  frame  against  which  to  build,  and 
there  should  be  iron  rods  run  up  vertically 
through  the  channel  to  make  it  extra  solid  there, 
while  the  wires  will  loop  about  these  rods  and 
their  tops  and  bottoms  be  fastened  together,  so 
that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the  silo  bursting 
at  this  point.  There  should  be  abundant  steel 
put  into  this  wall,  so  that  all  bursting  strains 
would  be  resisted  by  the  concrete.  Reference  to 
the  diagram  (Fig.  404)  will  make  plain  the  idea. 
The  section  of  silo  shows  a  course  of  blocks  laid 
with  the  continuous  channel  open  and  ready  to 
be  filled  with  cement.  It  is  actually  a  form  of 
concrete  and  is  left  there  when  filled  instead  of 
being  taken  away  as  a  wooden  form  would  be. 
The  block  construction  is  clearly  shown  and  the 
bit  of  heavy  wire  bent  into  shape  to  be  inserted 
in  the  form  and  built  into  the  block  to  hold  the 
parallel  sides  in  place.  This  idea,  by  the  way, 
is  applicable  to  straight  walls  for  houses  or  any 
kind  of  buildings. 

The  wood  mold  is  made  with  a  curve  to  fit 
the  silo  and  of  any  convenient  length,  as  3',  and 
as  wide  as  the  wall  is  thick,  say  6".  A  depth  of 
8"  will  lay  very  well.  Clamps  hold  the  bottom 
of  the  mold  to  the  ends  and  sides.  A  curved 
wooden  block  2"  thick  fills  the  central  portion 
of  the  mold  to  make  the  hollow  in  the  stone; 
and  this  block  must  be  made  a  trifle  tapering 
to  be  readily  taken  out  and  in  three  parts,  divid- 
ed vertically,  so  that  the  cross  wires  will  not 
hold  it.  These  cross  wires  are  held  in  place  by 
the  central  block  and  cement  poured  in  and 
gently  rammed  about  them. 

In  making  these  cement  stones  gravel  is  not 
used,  but  coarse  sand  instead.  In  erecting  a  silo 
after  this  manner  only  scaffolding  timber  would 
be  needed  and  the  scaffold  would  be  inside  the 
silo,  though  hoisting  would  be  by  pole  and  der- 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


243 


PIG.     405.      COMBINATION    CEMENT    SILO     (ELEVATION). 

rick,  as  in  any  silo,  the  arm  simply  swinging     30'   of   330   pounds   per   square   foot.     At   20' 

material  over  the  wall  to  the  scaffold.  depth  the  pressure  is  220  pounds.     To  calculate 

Silage  has  a  bursting  pressure  at  a  depth  of     the  bursting  pressure  per  vertical  foot  in  a  round 


FIG.     406.      COMBINATION    CEMENT    SILO     (UPPER    PLAN). 


244 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


silo  multiply  the  pressure  per  square  foot  by 
half  the  diameter  of  the  silo.  Thus  in  a  16' 
silo  30'  deep  the  bursting-stress  at  the  bottom 
is  8  X  330=2,640  pounds  for  the  vertical  foot, 
decreasing  as  you  get  higher. 


COMBINATION  CEMENT  SILO. 

In  Figs.  405  to  410  are  presented  complete 
plans  for  double  silo  for  dairy  barn  built  in 
DuPage  County,  Illinois.  Further  comment  is  un- 
necessary owing  to  complete  architect's  plans 
being  shown. 


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riG.     407.      COMBINATION     CEMENT     SILO     (ELEVATION    IN    DETAIL). 


MIS  CELL  AN  EO  US. 


245 


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FIG.     408.        COMBINATION     CEMENT     SILO     (DETAIL    OF    DOOR    CONSTRUCTION). 


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FIG.     409.      COMBINATION    CEMENT     SILO     (VERTICAL     SECTION     THROUGH    DOOR). 


246 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    410.     COMBINATION    CEMENT    SILO    (GENERAL    PLAN). 


CRIBS,    GRANARIES    AND    WORKSHOPS. 

Perhaps  the  cheapest  building  for  a  crib  or 
granary  is  square,  of  capacity  enough  for  the 
grain  produce  on  the  farm.  But  as  corn  is 
stored  when  not  entirely  dry  it  can  be  cured 
better  in  narrow  cribs.  On  this  theory  are  de- 
signed two  cribs  set  parallel  under  one  roof  and 
12'  apart.  {Fig.  412.)  This  gives  a  driveway 
of  sufficient  size  to  store  reaper,  mower  and  all 
implements  of  the  farm  if  necessary  to   store 


them  here.  If  this  driveway  should  be  used  for 
implement  room  care  should  be  taken  not  to  let 
any  of  the  tools  or  implements  come  near  enough 
to  the  sides  of  the  crib  to  give  rats  a  chance  to 
gnaw  their  way  in. 

The  cribs  are  each  6'  x  36'  at  the  bottom  and 
8'  X  36'  at  the  top.  The  object  of  this  is  to 
give  the  sides  of  the  cribs  an  outward  slope, 
which  serves  two  or  three  valuable  purposes. 
First,  it  prevents  rats  climbing  up  the  sides; 
second^  it  prevents  rain  driving  into  corn,  and 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


247 


third,  makes  it  easier  scooping  corn  from  wagon. 
Eats  will  climb  up  the  perpendicular  sides  of  a 
crib  to  an  open  window  or  even  to  the  top  of 
the  crib.  To  prevent  their  going  over  top  of 
crib  place  a  board  extending  6"  over  the  edge  of 
the  ties  and  plate  to  which  the  slats  are  nailed. 
The  windows  must  not  be  left  open  after  the 
corn  is  put  in. 

The  bottom  of  each  crib  is  6"  x  36"  and  rests 
on  stone  foundation  3'  in  ground.  {Fig.  411.) 
The  sills  are  8"  x  10"  by  36',  and  the  joists  are 


FIG.  411.   TYPE  OF  CORNCRIB. 


FIG.  412.   TYPE  OF  CORNCRIB  (ELEVATION). 

2"  X 10"  by  6'.  The  sills  rest  on  the  stone 
piers  18"  thick  II/2'  above  ground.  This  gives 
thorough  ventilation. 

There  are  three  windows  on  each  side  of  drive- 
way for  receiving  corn  when  the  cribs  are  tilled. 
These  windows  are  4'  x  4'  and  are  fastened  by  a 
strong  wooden  button.  After  the  crib  is  filled 
to  middle  of  these  windows  the  corn  is  thrown 
over  the  top.  "With  top  of  crib  8'  x  36'  there 
can  be  stored  after  the  crib  proper  is  full  to 
the  square  one-third  more  corn. 

The  framework  consists  of  three  bents  12' 
each.  The  space  over  the  driveway  out  12'  at 
each  end  is  floored  over  and  gives  roof  for  sev- 
eral hundred  bushels  of  corn  or  1,000  bushels 
of  wheat.  This  crib  and  granary  are  absolutely 
rat-proof  if  the  doors  and  windows  are  not  left 
open  longer  than  when  used  to  put  in  or  take 
out  corn,  and  if  one  is  careful  not  to  set  boards 
or  tools  against  the  cribs  for  resting  places  for 
rats  to  gnaw  their  way  in. 


The  slats  on  the  outside  and  inside  of  the 
cribs  are  oak,  3"xli4"  and  %"  apart.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  use  any  slats  with  sappy 
or  wavy  edges. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  size  of  the  ties 
may  seem  heavy,  but  the  fact  is  they  are  not  too 
heavy,  nor  are  the  posts  too  heavy  to  prevent 
springing  when  the  crib  is  loaded.  The  rafters 
are  pine  2"  x  6"  and  the  sheathing  is  fencing 
1"  x  6" ;  the  gables  are  weather-boarded  with 
poplar.  The  posts  are  12'  long,  6"  x  8".  Ties 
are  12'  long,  4"  x  8",  three  to  a  post.  There 
are  four  ties  6"  x  6"  26'  long  which  are  tenoned 
into  the  outside  posts  and  receive  in  a  mortise 
the  inside  posts.  This  makes  the  inside  of  each 
crib  one  foot  lower  than  the  plate  on  which  the 
rafters  rest  and  makes  it  easier  to  till  the  crib. 
If  the  crop  is  heavy  set  a  board  on  edge,  making 
the  inside  of  crib  as  high  as  the  outside.  The 
driveway  is  closed  by  sliding  doors,  which  when 
locked  makes  a  safe  store  for  the  corn  crop. 
The  narrow  slatted  cribs  have  also  perpendicu- 
lar ventilators  placed  in  front  of  each  receiv- 
ing window  where  corn  is  likely  to  pack  and 
mold  if  at  any  place  in  the  crib.  These  venti- 
lators extend  from  floor  to  roof. 

While  the  narrow  crib  is  needed  in  moist 
eastern  climates,  farther  west  this  crib  may  very 
well  be  widened  to  8'  or  even  10'  at  the  bottom. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  when  pine  lumber 
must  be  used  and  rat-proofing  is  desired  it  may 
be  secured  by  lining  the  inside  of  the  crib  with 


wire  netting 
expensive. 


of  about  Vo"  mesh.     This  is  not 


BUILDING    A    2,000-BUSHEL    CORNCRIB. 

In  building  a  eorncrib  that  will  hold,  say, 
2,000  bushels  of  corn,  with  a  driveway  between 
the  two  parts  of  the  crib,  it  is  important  to  know 
where  the  crib  is  to  be  built.  A  crib  for  Nebras- 
ka is  usually  8'  wide  and  sometimes  10'  or  12'. 
Such  a  crib  in  Ohio  would  spoil  much  corn  in 
humid  seasons.  Cribs  in  Illinois  are  often  8' 
wide.  Cribs  in  New  York  are  seldom  more  than 
4'  wide.  In  Ohio  they  are  from  5'  te  6'.  A 
bushel  of  corn  occupies  about  two  cubic  feet  of 
space.  Therefore  a  crib  6'  wide,  inside  mea- 
sure, 8'  deep,  and  40'  long  will  hold  about  1,000 
bushels.  Thus  a  double  crib  with  driveway  be- 
tween will  hold  2,000  bushels  (see  Figs.  413  and 
414). 

Let  the  driveway  be  10'  wide  or  12'  if  it  is 
desired  to  shelter  occasional  loads  of  hay.  Let 
the  posts  be  set  on  small,  neat  concrete  piers  and 
be  24'  high  to  the  sills,  and  well  tinned  with 
galvanized  iron  so  that  mice  and  rats  cannot 


248 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     413.      COHNCRIB    TO     HOLD     2,000     BUSHELS      (eLEV.\TION)  . 


pass  up  them  to  enter  the  crib.  Let  the  frame 
be  strongly  built  of  joist  construction,  the  sills 
of  three  parts  of  2"  x  12"  stuff,  thoroughly 
spiked  together  and  let  in  between  the  parts  of 
the  built-up  posts,  which  are'  of  2"  x  8"  stuff, 
in  three  parts.  Small  cross  sills  of  2"  x  8"  stuff 
enable  the  floor  to  be  laid  lengthwise  of  the 
building.  Nail  girts  are  of  2"  x  6",  spiked  well, 
or,  better,  bolted  on,  and  the  covering  1"  x  4" 
stuff  put  on  vertically  and  spaced  with  14" 
cracks  to  permit  air  to  pass  through.  The  floor 
may  also  be  left  a  little  open  to  admit  air,  which 
will  prevent  mold  in  the  corn.  Let  the  crib 
be  well  braced  in  all  directions  and  set  apart 
from  other  buildings. 

The  following  improvement  of  the  crib  (Figs. 
413  and  414)  has  been  suggested:  "The  timbers 
are  so  arranged  and  so  thoroughly  spiked  to- 
gether that  they  form  a  perfect  brace,  and  most 
of  the  weight  being  on  the  inside  wall  does  not 
settle   out  of  place.     The  leaning  walls  make 


unloading  of  corn  much  more  easy  while  the 
scoop  boxes  are  arranged  that  three  or  more 
men  may  load  at  once  when  hauling  to  market. 
These  boxes  may  also  be  used  for  self-feeders 
if  so  desired.  Note  the  cross  section  {Fig.  415). 
Below,  the  timbers  are  all  2'  apart  and  it  should 
be  sided  with  drop  siding  or  shiplap  put  on 
horizontally.  The  cribs  are  6'  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom with  the  walls  leaning  3',  the  driveway  be- 
ing 12'  wide.  The  collar  beams  tie  the  building 
together  and  also  support  the  inside  walls.  The 
sills,  if  pillars  are  used,  should  be  solid  8"  x  8" ; 
or  if  solid  foundation  2"  x  8"  joists  could  be 
used.  The  windows  should  be  about  10'  apart 
and  in  two  sets ;  the  first  set  should  not  be  more 
than  6'  to  7'  above  the  floor,  while  the  second 
should  be  at  the  top  and  and  directly  between  the 
lower  set.  The  scoop  boxes  should  be  hung  8" 
below  the  floor  and  should  be  18"  wide  with  an 
8'  board  on  front ;  a  space  of  18"  should  be  left 
not  slatted  for  corn  to  roll  out  into  boxes.    The 


FIG.    414.       CORNCRIB   TO    HOLD    2,000    BUSHELS. 


FIG.     415.        IMPROVED     CORNCRIB    FOR     2,000     BUSHELS. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


249 


lids  should  be  cut  in  sections  6'  long  for  con- 
venience in  handling.  The  diagram  shows  a 
roof  1/2  pitch.  A  track  24'  long,  just  level  with 
the  eaves,  will  allow  two  6'  doors  to  roll  just 
cut  of  the  Avay.  Each  crib  holds  1,200  bushels. 
Ventilators  made  of  2"  x  8"  timbers  should  be 
put  in  the  outside  walls  near  the  bottom  of  the 
crib,  so  the  air  may  pass  through  the  corn.  It 
will  aid  greatly  in  curing  the  corn." 

Some  builders  would  side  {Fig.  415)  with 
vertical  siding  about  4"  width,  leaving  14"  air 
cracks.  Hemlock  for  siding  is  rat-proof.  This 
<?rib  might  be  set  on  concrete  blocks  molded 
in  galvanized  iron  forms,  say  round,  of  12"  diam- 
eter, and  that  would  make  it  rat-proof,  if  nothing 
were  ever  leaned  against  it  for  rats  to  climb. 

A  RAT-PROOF  CORN  CRIB. 

The  crib  shown  in  Fig.  416  has  been  in  use 
four  years.  The  builder  thus  describes  it:  "I 
have  8"  square  blocks,  upper  corners  knocked 


RAT    PROOF    CRIB 
FIG.      416.        RAT-PROOF     CORNCRIB      (ELEVATION). 

off  and  a  50-pound  lard  can  inverted  over  them. 
I  use  on  the  block  a  4"  x  10"  sill,  with  2" 
flooring  laid  tight.  I  run  a  band  of  galvanized 
iron  2'  in  Avidth  all  around,  as  an  extra  precau- 
tion, outside  on  walls  and  bottom  of  door.  The 
view  shows  the  step  to  the  crib  door." 

A  COMBINED  CORNCRIB  AND  GR.ANARY. 

Five  thousand  bushels  of  corn  require  approx- 
imately 10,000  cubic  feet.  A  farm  crib  for  that 
amount  of  corn  may  be  made  6'  wide  and  100' 
long.  To  hold  5,000  bushels  will  take  two  cribs 
of  this  size.     They  are  placed  parallel  and  10' 


apart  and  over  the  space  under  the  roof,  by  mak- 
ing it  half  pitch,  we  find  room  for  bins  in  a 
space  12'  by  100'  and  averaging  6'  high — suffi- 
cient to  store  5,000  bushels  of  either  oats  or 
corn,  with  space  in  the  center  for  elevator. 
Being  so  long  this  could  be  economically  filled 
])y  using  a  carrier  in  the  peak  of  the  roof.  The 
ground  plan   {Fig.  417)   shows  but  one  section 


PART  OF  GROUND  PLAN 


FIG.     417.        COMBINED    CORNCRIB    AND    GRANARY. 


END  OiVATION  OFCOfiN  CRIB  TO  HOLD  5000  BUS.OF  EARCORN 
FIG.    418.       COMBINED   CORNCRIB   AND  GRANARY. 

with  concrete  piers  10'  apart.  The  cross  eleva- 
tion shows  these  piers  to  be  12"  square  and  2' 
above  ground.  To  keep  out  rats  it  would  be 
well  to  use  a  galvanized  form  for  these  piers 
and  fill  with  the  cement  mortar.  On  these  can 
be  erected  a  joist  or  plank  frame  as  indicated 
or  a  heavy  mortised  frame.  The  only  draw- 
back to  its  use  for  other  purposes  is  the  chance 
for  rats  to  secure  entrance.  A  space  of  18"  or 
20"  at  the  top  of  the  cribs  on  the  inside  should 
be  left  unsided  for  throwing  in  corn. 

ANOTHER  PLAN  FOR  A  CORNCRIB. 

In  Fig.  419  is  shown  a  corncrib  which  the  own- 
er considers  an  improvement  on  Fig.  418.  He 
says:     "The  plan  in  Fig.  418  covers  too  much 


250 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ground,  consequently  requires  too  much  floor 
space  and  too  much  roof.  The  modern  way  is 
to  build  high.  Therefore,  if  I  were  to  build  a 
crib  to  hold  5,000  bushels  of  corn  I  would  build 
it  16'  to  square,  8'  cribs  on  both  head  over  drive- 
way.    The  building  would  be  25'  x  48'  with  a 


FIG.    419.       ANOTHER    OORNCRIB    IDEA. 

square  pitch  roof,  and  I  would  use  an  elevator  or 
grain  dump  outside  of  building  over  the  roof, 
discharging  the  grain  through  the  middle  of  the 
roof  and  spouting  it  in  the  inside  to  either  side 
or  the  middle.  I  have  such  an  outfit  and  I  can 
fill  the  entire  building  by  one  setting  of  elevator. 
My  crib  will  hold  5,000  bushels  of  corn  and 
8,000  bushels  of  oats,  and  has  a  neat  appearance. 
By  building  high  we  save  work  in  shelling,  as 
corn  will  roll  down  and  does  not  need  to  be 
shoveled. ' ' 

A   ROUND   AND   RAT-PROOF    CORNCRIB. 

It  used  to  seem  that  it  did  not  much  matter 
how  one  stored  corn.  It  was  cheap  stuff  any- 
way and  you  know  that  rats  got  a  toll  of  it  and 
you  did  not  worry  if  the  weather  took  another 
toll.  Then  corn  was  so  common,  so  plentiful. 
Nowadays  all  this  is  changed.  Corn  is  worth 
double  what  it  was  a  few  years  ago.  And  since 
we  have  learned  to  care  well  for  our  seed  corn 
and  to  look  attentively  at  each  ear  as  we  husk 
it  we  love  it  more.  Therefore  we  no  longer 
like  to  see  it  wasted  or  to  think  of  rats  nesting 
in  the  cribs. 

There  is  need  on  many  a  farm  of  a  crib  to  store 
corn  for  some  months,  to  be  used  late  in  the  sea- 
son. 

The  size  of  the  crib  must  be  governed  by  the 
condition  of  green  corn  when  it  is  cribbed.  In 
Ohio  it  is  not  safe  to  have  a  mass  of  corn  more 
than  6'  in  diameter.  The  crib  shown  in  Fig. 
420  is  about  12'  in  diameter,  in  the  center  of 
Avhich  is  an  airshaft  to  ventilate.    Have  the  tin- 


ner make  eight  lengths  of  pipe  of  galvanized 
sheet  iron.  These  to  be  12"  in  diameter  at  the 
large  end  and  8"  at  the  small  end,  2-k"  long. 
There  is  another  similar  pipe  12"  at  the  small 
end  and  16"  at  the  large  end.  These  are  the 
supports  of  the  crib  and  are  to  be  filled  with 
concrete. 

Dig  a  hole  about  24"  stjuare  where  the  center 
of  the  crib  will  come.  A  circle  is  drawn  around 
this  about  10'  in  diameter  and  eight  other  holes 
are  dug  about  it.  These  are  for  the  foundation 
of  the  crib.  Fill  all  these  holes  with  concrete. 
It  is  made  of  gravel  six  parts,  cement  one  part. 
Level  these  bases.  While  yet  the  concrete  in  the 
lioles  is  soft  set  on  these  bases  galvanized  pipe 
forms,  small  end  up,  and  fill  them  with  con- 
crete, made  a  little  richer  than  that  of  the  un- 
derground part.  Level  the  tops  of  them  all. 
Thus  you  have  one  pier,  the  large  one,  in  the 
center,  surrounded  by  eight  smaller  ones  each 
cqui-distant  from  the  center  and  so  placed  as 
to  divide  the  circle  into  eight  parts.    Fig.  421. 

Should  anyone  build  one  of  these  cribs  with 
such  a  foundation  in  the  fall  he  should  as  soon 
as  the  concrete  is  in  bank  around  the  piers  with 


»C     C-  -  .  i^*.«i.-.>- 


FIG.     420.        ROUND    RAT-PROOF    CORNCRIB. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


251 


manure  to  protect  from  frost.  When  the  con- 
crete is  hard  in  the  galvanized  iron  forms  it 
will  support  the  crib  admirably,  and  any  one  of 
these  small  piers  would  support  ten  such  cribs 
without  danger.  And  the  smooth  iron  will  for- 
ever resist  the  climbing  of  rats  and  mice.  No 
weight  can  be  put  safely  on  them  for  ten  days, 
so  you  may  set  temporary  posts  to  set  your  crib 
on,  if  you  are  in  a  hurry.  The  photograph 
shows  crib  setting  on  these  temporary  posts. 

Next  take  a  joist  2"  x  10"  and  12'  long  and 
set  it  across  the  foundation.  At  right  angles 
to  it  place  and  spike  another,  or  rather  two 
others,  each  5'  11"  long,  thus  making  a  square 
X  of  your  foundation.  Then  put  in  between 
>them  intersecting  2"  x  10"  joists  that  will  reach 


handy,  only  oak  is  best  because  it  is  most  dura- 
ble. Drive  a  circle  of  stakes  solidly  into  the 
ground  of  exactly  the  same  size  in  diameter  as 
the  radiating  spokes.  Place  these  stakes  about 
12"  apart.  Bend  around  them  green  !/>"  wood 
and  tack  it  lightly  to  the  stakes  for  a  begin- 
ning. When  one  course  is  around  lay  on  an- 
other, breaking  joints  and  nail  it  with  short 
nails,  say  4s.  Then  a  third  layer  of  wood,  and 
longer  nails.  Then  the  fourth  layer,  and  nail 
well  with  nails  that  just  about  reach  through. 
You  can  make  one  of  these  hoops  in  an  hour, 
the  five  in  half  a  day  easily,  and  that  is  all  the 
framing  there  is  to  be  done.  Absolutely  no 
mortising,  no  posts,  nothing  but  floor,  hoops, 
siding  and  roof. 


FIG.     421.      riOUND    RAT-PROOF    CORNCRIB     (CONSTRUCTION). 


out  to  the  same  lengths  as  those  already  in 
place.  These  rest  on  the  remaining  founda- 
tion piers  or  posts.  Now  you  have  in  place 
eight.  Cut  trimmers  of  2"  x  10"  stuff  and 
spike  them  in  place  between  these  floor  joists, 
for  such  they  are,  tying  all  together.  And  to 
make  the  floor  amply  solid  insert  other  spoke- 
like radiating  joists  between  those  already  in, 
onlv  the  additional  ones  need  not  be  larger  than 
2"  x  6". 

Next  we  must  have  five  circular  girts.  These 
we  will  build  of  i/o "  stuff,  4"  wide.  Green  stuff 
is  best,   oak  or   elm   or   beech   or   whatever   is 


Put  one  of  these  hoops  over  the  ends  of  the 
floor  joists.  They  need  not  be  cut  off  till  the  hoop 
is  in  place,  and  it  is  well  to  leave  the  lower 
part  of  the  joist  project  2"  to  hold  the  weight 
of  the  hoop.  The  hoop  comes  just  to  the 
level  of  the  tops  of  the  floor  joists.  Spike  it  in 
place,  then  lay  your  floor,  and  lay  it  with  large 
open  cracks.    Now  you  are  ready  to  ' '  raise. ' ' 

Placing  the  hoops  exactly  over  each  other, 
wdth  a  square  mark  down  on  each  hoop  where 
the  eight  ends  of  the  2"  x  10"  joists  come  so 
tliat  you  can  nail  right  there  the  supporting 
pieces  as  you  raise  them  up.     Siding  had  bet- 


252 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ter  be  of  1"  x  4"  stuff  12'  long.  You  will  not 
want  tlie  crib  that  high,  but  you  may  put  the 
roof  up  that  high,  or  nearly. 

The  crib  in  the  illustration  has  the  longest 
pieces  of  siding  cut  11'  6"  long.  Cut  eight  of 
these  pieces  to  begin  with,  and  see  that  they 
are  good  ones,  not  weak.  Mark  on  these  pieces 
where  the  hoops  are  to  come.  Space  between 
them  29" ;  that  will  bring  the  hoops  equally 
distant  apart.  Nail  up  these  eight  pieces  of 
siding,  putting  each  one  opposite  a  leg  of  the 
crib.  Plumb  them  as  you  erect  them  care- 
fully. Brace  them  so  that  they  cannot  get  out 
of  plumb.  Now  cut  some  short  pieces  of  1"  x 
4s",  each  piece  29"  long,  to  help  support  the 
hoops  as  you  raise.  Get  four  or  five  men  and 
lift  bodily  all  the  hoops,  place  the  props  under 
them  and  nail  the  bottommost  one  in  place. 
Lift  again  and  nail  the  second  one.  Thus  pro- 
ceed till  all  are  nailed  up  in  place,  the  top 
hoop  i/o"  above  the  top  of  the  supporting  1"  x 
4s".  This  is  so  that  the  roof  boards  will  not  en- 
counter the  end  of  the  board. 

Now  side  up  with  1"  x  4"  siding,  spaced  at 
least  1/4"  apart,  and  wider  if  of  dry  stuff,  let- 
ting tlie  siding  reach  to  the  top  of  the  hoop 
next  the  highest  one.  One  can  throw  corn  over 
this  loop,  and  also  leave  a  window  below  it  on 
two  sides  so  all  the  corn  will  not  need  to  be 
lifted  so  high.  Put  two  nails  in  each  piece  of 
siding.  Then  use  some  %"  stuff  and  cut 
diagonal  braces  and  fit  in  from  hoop  to  hoop, 
clear  up  from  the  floor  to  the  top  of  the  siding. 
Of  course  before  the  siding  is  put  on  carefully 
plumb  the  crib.  Let  about  three  or  four  pieces 
of  siding  go  clear  up  to  the  top  hoop  at  each 
"corner."  And  set  under  this  top  hoop  a  short 
2"  X  4".  resting  on  tlie  hoop  below,  so  that  the 
weight  will  not  all  be  upborne  by  nails. 

Now  all  ready  for  roof.  Take  1"  x  12" 
boards,  10'  long — 1"  x  10"  will  serve,  pr  nar- 
rower, if  need  be.  Have  the  mill  man  rip 
them  carefully  from  one  corner  to  the  other, 
diagonally,  so  that  each  board  makes  two 
pointed  pieces,  like  wedges.  Mark  from  the 
wide  end  (having  carefully  sawed  them  to 
length)  24".  You  will  need  to  set  up  a  round 
pole  in  the  middle  of  the  crib  to  help  you  get 
started  setting  up  the  roof.  Lay  a  scaffold 
across  the  crib  on  which  to  stand;  put  up 
four  of  these  roof  boards,  on  the  opposite  sides ; 
nail  them  to  the  hoop  (the  plate)  at  the  mark 
of  24".  Let  the  ends  rest  against  the  pole. 
You  cannot  quite  make  these  roof  boards  fill 
the  middle,  but  no  matter.  Now  begin  and  nail 
them  all  on,  following  right  around,  nailing  the 
broad  butt  to  the  hoop  at  the  mark,  and  the 


tops  together  and  midway  you  may  use  short 
pieces  of  l"x4"  to  tie  them  together,  nailing 
down  into  the  block.  Toe-nail  them,  too.  When 
you  get  around  to  one  of  the  temporary  roof 
boards  take  it  off  and  make  it  fit.  Do  not  worry 
about  the  roof  ' '  not  coming  out ' ' ;  there  will  be 
left  a  hole  from  4"  to  12"  wide  at  the  top. 

You  may  need  to  rip  the  last  board  to  make 
it  fit.  Now  put  a  nail  in  the  top  of  the  pole 
(better  sharpen  it)  and  tie  a  string  to  that 
nail  and  with  a  pencil  line  the  roof  for  shin- 
gles. Line  as  high  as  you  can  reach,  each  line 
clear  around  and  5"  above  the  other,  and  lay 
the  shingles  with  tops  to  lines.  You  will  have 
to  use  a  sharp  knife  and  trim  the  shingles  a 
little  to  make  them  lay.  When  you  shingle  up 
as  high  as  you  can  reach  put  up  a  roof  scaffold. 
The  best  way  is  to  have  some  of  the  i/^"  stuff 
and  bend  it  right  around  as  though  you  were 
making  a  hoop  and  double  it  and  nail  it  to- 
gether, encircling  the  roof.  That  is  safe  and 
quickly  made.  Take  out  the  pole  and  finish 
the  peak  with  a  cone  made  of  galvanized  iron. 
It  need  not  be  riveted  together.  Get  your  tin- 
ner to  cut  you  a  circle  about  24"  or  30"  in 
diameter  and  to  take  out  of  it  a  little  V  on  one 
side  and  you  can  bend  it  to  fit  the  roof  ex- 
actly. 

Two  men,  after  the  foundation  is  in,  will 
build  about  two  of  these  cribs  in  a  week.  They 
hold  a  little  more  than  500  bushels  of  ear  corn. 
Put  up  a  24''  airshaft  in  the  middle  of  each 
crib;  do  not  floor  beneath  that.  Bend  hoop 
stuff  and  make  battens  for  doors  just  as  hoops 
were  made,  only  with  a  smaller  circle,  so  if  it 
straightens  a  little  it  will  yet  be  curved  enough. 

Following  is  a  bill  of  material:  8  galvanized 
iron  cylinders,  24"  long,  12"  diameter  at  base, 
8"  at  top,  put  together  with  seam,  no  solder 
needed.  1  similar  iron  16"  at  base,  12"  at  top. 
4  pieces  2"  x  10"  and  12'  long.  4  pieces  2"  x 
6"  and  12'  long.  108  pieces  l"x4"  and  12' 
long  for  siding.  70  pieces  i/^"  x  4"  and  12' 
long  for  hoops.  100  feet  1"  x  4"  for  flooring. 
250  feet  of  1"  x  10"  or  1"  x  12"  ripped  diag- 
onally, 10'  long,  for  roof.  1,500  shingles  5"  to 
the  weather. 

A  TWO-STORY  DOUBLE  CORNCRIB. 

The  double  crib  with  two  stories  and  two 
driveways  shown  in  Fig.  422  is  about  30'  wide, 
each  crib  being  about  10'  wide  and  20'  deep 
and  60'  long.  Built  of  these  dimensions  it  will 
hold  about  7,000  bushels  of  corn  on  each  side 
of  the  driveway,  but  on  most  western  farms 
it  will  be  built  12'  wide  rather  than  10',  which 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


253 


FIG.    422.       TWO-STORY    DOUBLE    CORNCBIB. 

will  considerably  increase  the  capacity,  without 
adding  inaterially  to  the  expense. 

TOOLHOUSE    AND    WORKSHOP. 

A  model  toolhouse  should  be  of  generous 
size,  so  that  machines  may  be  put  away  with- 
out much  labor;  it  should  be  as  easy  to  un- 
hitch in  the  shed  as  out  of  doors,  else  men  will 
be  apt  to  leave  machines  out.  The  shed  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  423  and  424  is  merely  a  great 
umbrella   with   posts   one   way   30'    apart,    the 


J. .3   .»..     ^    ^     K«V,.,   SViA-   Cfcav    She,  jflK- 


FIG.     42.3.       TOOLHOUSE     AND     WORKSHOP      (FRAMEWORK). 


tlEVATnN'TOOl  5H£D  SO^SO  ft. 

HOOT  nnr  CUM  smn. 
wni  LvoujiooM  ••  won  aoM  ucw 


FIG.     424.       TOOLHOUSE    AND    WORKSHOP     (ELEVATION). 

other  way  12'  or  16',  no  side  to  it  at  all,  so  that 
there  is  nothing  in  the  way  of  driving  into  it  at 
any  point.  Putting  the  main  machinery  in  the 
inner  parts  leaves  the  overhanging  roof  10'  wide 
for  wagons  and  as  it  is  10'  high  there  is  no  dif- 
ficulty in  driving  under  to  unhitch.     Buggies 


may  be  sheltered  on  the  shady  side,  and  if  it  is 
feared  that  snow  would  drift  into  them  one  or 
two  sides  may  be  boarded  up.  This  is  not  de- 
signed for  a  house  for  fine  carriages,  which 
should  of  course  have  a  tight  dust-proof  build- 
ing. 

The  work-room  above  will  hold  a  lot  of 
smaller  tools,  be  a  good  place  in  which  to  mend 
harness,  make  gates,  repair  machinery  or  store 
seed  grain.  By  putting  the  truss  above  it  with 
an  inch  truss-rod  coming  down  to  the  cross- 
beam there  is  given  a  clear  span  of  30'  in  the 
shed  below.  The  whole  thing  is  built  in  joint 
construction,  posts  2"  x  8",  in  two  pieces,  built 
up  solid  below  the  cross-beam,  this  made  of 
three  pieces  of  2"  x  12",  spaced  2"  apart,  box 
plates  of  2"xl0",  bridge  truss  of  6"x6",  raft- 
ers of  2"x4"  or  2"x6",  according  to  whether 
they  are  ever  to  hold  much  weight. 

The  work-room  should  have  a  bridge  stair- 
way wide  enough  and  sloping  enough  to  take 
up  a  vehicle  if  necessary  for  repairs  or  paint- 
ing. This  may  be  in  any  bent  that  is  most  con- 
venient. The  floor  may  be  of  hard  earth  or 
cement;  the  posts  to  rest  on  stone  pillars.  Put 
on  a  shingle  roof  that  will  not  be  too  hot  in 
summer.  If  there  is  too  much  room  in  this 
upper  story  finish  off  a  room  for  an  extra  hand 
to  use  now  and  then. 

A    CONVENIENT    TOOLSHED. 

It  is  difficult  to  keep  things  in  their  places 
unless  one  has  provided  places  for  them.  On 
any  ordinary  farm  there  is  a  great  collection  of 
machinery,  wagons,  plows,  harrows,  drills,  rakes, 
mowers,  binders  and  what  not,  which  are  gener- 
ally supposed  to  be  stored  on  the  barn  floor  or  in 
odd  corners  of  other  buildings.  Too  often  they 
are  left  out  under  the  sky.  Yet  it  is  not  difficult 
to  keep  them  sheltered  and  in  a  place  where  they 
will  be  convenient  of  access,  not  in  the  way  and 
easily  put  in  their  places.  Fig.  425  shows  such 
a  building.  It  has  no  sides  but  is  simply  a  roof 
of  pyramid  shape,  projecting  on  each  side  10' 


TOOL     SHCDSCXH 


FIG.     425.       COXVEXIEXT    TOOLSHED. 


254 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


beyond  the  posts,  being  56'  square  over  all.  Un- 
der these  projecting  eaves  the  farm  wagons  may 
stand  and  in  the  middle  spaces  the  machinery 
may  be  stored.  Any  machine  may  be  driven  to 
any  part,  as  there  is  nothing  to  interfere  with 
driving  through  in  any  direction.  There  is  much 
satisfaction  in  storing  machines  in  a  building  by 
themselves ;  they  are  not  in  the  way,  nor  are  they 
in  danger  of  injury  from  contact  of  animals  or 
wagons.  •  There  is  no  danger  of  fire  in  such  a 
building  as  this.  Protection  from  sun  and  rain 
alone  is  needed.  The  posts  are  6"  x  6",  set  on 
stone ;  the  roof  is  of  shingles. 

STORING  SHREDDED  FODDER. 

In  this  day  of  progressive  and  improved  farm- 
ing we  find  the  farmer  pondering  over  many 
subjects  which  until  recently  did  not  trouble 
him.      One   of  these   is   a  satisfactory   way   of 


FIG.     426.       SHED    FOR    STORING    SHREDDED    FODDER. 

handling  shredded  fodder  economically.  For 
years  past  more  or  less  corn  has  been  cut  and 
shredded,  but  the  amount  is  proportionately 
small  in  comparison  to  the  thousands  of  acres 
left  to  stand  in  the  field  and  spoil  by  exposure. 
However,  more  and  more  is  being  cut  each  year 


and  now  many  farmers  are  debating  whether  it 
would  not  be  best  to  grow  less  hay  and  cut  more 
corn  for  roughage.  Undoubtedly  the  greatest 
drawback  to  this  is  the  inconvenience  of  storing 
and  feeding.  The  whole  stalks  are  a  nuisance 
anywhere  you  find  them — in  the  feed  rack,  in 
the  manure,  or  in  the  field.  Also  a  smaller  part 
of  fodder  is  eaten  when  fed  whole. 

Experienced  men  generally  admit  that  shred- 
ding is  profitable  if  the  fodder  can  be  well  kept 
in  storing,  but  here  is  where  the  trouble  comes. 


FIG.     427.        SHED    FOR    STORING     SHREDDED    FODDER      (FRAME). 

When  put  in  a  tight  barn,  even  if  only  slightly 
damp,  it  will  become  mouldy  and  dusty,  and  it 
is  too  much  trouble  to  handle  in  stack.  No 
entirely  satisfactory  way  of  storing  is  in  gen- 
eral use.  Even  if  well  kept  it  is  hard  to  get 
out  of  a  hay  loft.  On  the  whole  it  is  usually 
best  to  feed  outside.  In  fact,  on  most  farms  it 
is  necessary  to  feed  the  larger  part  of  the  rough- 
age in  the  feedlot. 

Figs.  426  and  427  give  an  idea  of  a  shed  de- 
signed for  this  purpose.  It  is  constructed  in 
sections  and  is  portable.  Thus  it  may  be  placed 
anywhere  around  the  feedlot  and  taken  out  of 
the  way  in  the  spring  or  moved  to  a  different 
place.  A  rack  should  be  built  the  full  length 
so  that  fodder  can  be  rolled  directly  into  it  as 
fed.  It  may  be  built  any  length  in  multiples 
of  16',  and  the  fodder  may  also  be  shredded 
directly  into  it  and  the  roof  removed  so  as  to 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


255 


fill  and  tramp  clear  to  the  top.  It  is  merely  a 
frame  structure  with  no  boards  on  ends  or  sides. 

Fodder  stored  in  this  way  will  keep  far  better 
than  when  put  into  a  tight  barn  and  is  much 
easier  put  in  and  taken  out  to  feed.  Also  the 
Avaste  or  unused  portion  serves  a  valuable  pur- 
pose by  retaining  licjuid  manure. 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  drawing  the  shed 
can  be  easily  taken  down  so  as  to  move  on  a 
wagon,  or  by  merely  removing  eight  or  ten  liolts 
it  may  be  sided  anywhere.  When  put  together  it 
is  as  strong  as  if  nailed  and  stationary. 

The  upright  posts  should  be  placed  on  small 
stones  to  avoid  decay  which  would  result  if  set 
on  the  ground.  The  roof  is  of  grooved  roofing 
boards  and  may  be  removed  in  sections  and 
easily  replaced.  By  means  of  hooks,  as  shown 
at  A  and  B,  it  is  prevented  from  being  blown 
away  by  the  wind. 

A  shed  of  this  kind  is  easily  built  and  the  cost 
is  also  comparatively  small.  This  of  course  may 
be  somewhat  lessened  by  doing  away  with  all 
bolts  if  one  is  sure  that  he  will  not  want  to  move 
it.  This  shed  16'  wide,  20'  high,  and  48'  long 
will  hold  400  tons.  The  cost  for  material  and 
labor  is  $88.30.  The  shed  will  last  for  a  number 
of  years. 

MACHINE  SHED  FOR  SMALL  P^ARM. 

Fig.  428  shows  a  machine  shed  to  contain  two 
mowers,  one  binder,  one  seeder,  one  disc  har- 
row, one  corn  planter,  a  drag,  a  roller,  a  steel 
harrow,  a  fanning  mill,  two  corn  cultivators 
with    wheels,    four    one-horse    cultivators,    two 


tion  should  be  simple,  the  location  dry  or  filled 
a  foot  or  so  with  clay  (no  other  door  is  needed), 
as  few  posts  as  may  be  and  a  roof  wdde  and 
low  enough  to  shut  out  sun.  Storage  under  the 
roof  for  small  tools  may  be  had  and  even  a  work- 
room up  there  is  easy  to  construct.  By  spacing 
the  posts  16'  apart  two  rows  of  machinery  may 
be  put  in  each  space.  It  would  be  well,  however, 
to  make  two  spaces  of  18'  so  that  wagons  could 
with  ease  be  driven  in  side  by  side.  This  would 
make  necessary  strong  plates  and  good  braces. 
Galvanized  steel  should  be  used  for  the  roof. 

PLAN  FOR  A  ROOT  CELLAR. 

Dig  a  hole  18' x  20',  5'  4"  deep  {Fig.  420). 
On  the  floor  of  the  cellar  hole  build  a  solid  con- 
crete wall  {Fig.  430).  First  erect  a  box  wall 
about  1'  high  and  16'  x  18'  outside  measure. 
This  will  allow  a  space  of  1'  between  the  box  wall 
and  the  cellar  wall  as  shown  herein.  This  will 
make  a  concrete  wall  1'  in  thickness.  Brace  the 
box  wall  firmly  by  means  of  two  or  three  2"  x  6" 
studding.  Fill  in  the  first  course  of  concrete  un- 
til it  is  about  flush  with  the  top  of  the  box,  leav- 
ing the  surface  rough  to  form  a  good  bond  with 
the  next  course  added.  When  the  first  course  has 
had  sufficient  time  to  harden  the  box  wall  can  be 
raised  about  a  foot  and  the  second  course  of  con- 
crete applied. 

]\Iake  the  wall  6'  4"  high  so  as  to  allow  4"  for 
a  concrete  floor  and  6'  as  the  distance  from  the 
surface  of  the  floor  to  the  bottom  of  the  plate. 
As  the  concrete  wall  is  to  project  about  a  foot 
above  the  ground  it  is  necessary  to  build  two 


CROSS  SECTION 

OF  FRAME 

ROOF  SHED 

24' — 


7^ 


3D 


!* 


B5 


6S' 

FIG.    42S.       MACHINE    SHED    FOR    SMALL  FARM. 


wagons,  and  a  manure  spreader.  These  may  be 
nicely  stored  in  a  shed  40'  wide  and  about  40' 
long,  or  longer  if  the  builder  can  afford  it. 
This  will  mean  mere  packing  away,  not  that  the 
tools  may  be  driven  in  and  unhitched  from  each 
evening.  If  that  is  desired  a  narrow  building, 
say  24'  wide  and  60'  or  72'  long,  will  be  needed. 
In  some  way  the  long  building  is  best.  It  may 
have  sliding  doors  along  its  whole  length  on 
the  back  side  and  on  the  south  side  may  be  left 
open ;  the  ends  may  be  closed.     The  construc- 


sides  to  box  wall,  forming  the  mold  for  the  con- 
crete. This  outside  course  of  boards  will  have  to 
be  made  18'  x  20'  inside  measure,  or  the  size 
of  the  cellar  hole,  so  as  to  continue  the  wall  up- 
right. The  wall  should  be  continued  above  the 
ground  to  prevent  the  access  of  water. 

Good  concrete  for  wall  can  be  made  by  mix- 
ing 5  parts  of  gravel,  3  parts  of  sharp  sand  and 
1  part  of  good  Portland  cement.  These  con- 
stituents are  well  mixed  by  shoveling  over  five 
times  or  until  they  show  a  thorough  intermin- 


256 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


gling,  after  which  sufficient  water  must  be  added 
to  form  a  thin  mortar.  When  well  mixed  shovel 
the  whole  into  the  12"  space  or  boxing.  Make 
the  floor  of  concrete  4"  thick  and  in  blocks  about 
3'  square. 

Use  2"  X  8"  material  in  the  construction  of  the 
sill.  Make  a  2"  x  8"  notch  or  recess  at  each  end 
of  the  18'  joists  which  will  allow  them  to  rest 
on  both  the  sill  and  the  wall.  Place  the  joists 
4'  apart  and  use  12'  2"  x  6"  scantlings  for 
rafters,  placing  them  2'  apart.  This  will  give 
the  roof  about  one-third  pitch.    Nail  the  ceiling 


FIG.     429.        ROOT    CELLAR     (SIDE    ELEVATION). 


at- 


-ir 


^' 


„        ■  ^   -  ■■■,     ,  ,.     ■-., .     .t.      .  ■      ■  ^>  -       .»    T T— --^   .    .      ^Tl-w- 


mk-.;^:&-^ii»m^ini^^mmmiH^m^mm 


FIG.  430.   ROOT  CELLAR  (GROUND  AND  WALLS). 


FIG.  431.   ROOT  CELLAR  (FRONT  ELEVATION). 


on  top  of  the  joists  before  putting  on  the  roof, 
using  tongued  and  grooved  1"  material. 

For  the  roof  {Fig.  429)  use  1"  roofing  boards 
placed  close  together.  Cover  this  with  two 
thicknesses  of  roofing  paper  and  lay  the  shingles 
414"  to  the  weather.  ]\Iake  the  entrance  in  the 
middle  of  one  side  through  a  gable  door  about 
41/2'  by  6 1/2'.  Have  the  gable  6'  wide  and  61/0' 
to  eaves.  Provide  a  double  inside  door  hinged 
parallel  with  the  roof  where  the  latter  joins  the 
gable.  During  severe  weather  the  space  between 
the  doors  can  be  partially  filled  with  chaff  or 
straw.  Put  in  two  ventilating  shafts  6"  square 
and  running  from  about  6"  above  the  floor  to  a 
point  above  the  peak  of  the  roof.  Have  the  lower 
12"  of  these  ventilation  tubes  perforated  with 
at  least  a  dozen  %"  holes. 

Place  6"  or  more  of  thoroughly  dry  chaff  on 
top  of  the  ceiling,  as  this  makes  an  excellent 
non-conductor  of  heat.  Cover  the  ground  for 
about  4'  around  the  building  with  1'  to  li/j'  of 
horse  manure  and  cover  the  whole  building  with 
two  or  three  loads  of  straw  for  the  winter.  This 
cellar  will  have  a  capacity  of  1,000  bushels  and 
be  capable  of  withstanding  low  temperatures. 

FRAME  FOR  HAY  BARN. 

A  frame  for  a  hay  barn  having  nothing  in 
the  way  inside  is  shown  in  Fig.  432.  The  posts 
may  be  of  solid  timber,  8"  x  8"  or  else  built  up 
of  2"  X  8"  stuff.  Set  on  concrete  blocks,  good 
ones,  and  bolt  each  post  solidly  to  the  concrete 
blocks,   then   no   windstorm   can   disturb   your 


■*V, 


FIG.     432.       FRAME    FOR     HAY    BARN. 


barn.  The  outside  braces  cover  over  carefully 
with  galvanized  iron  on  three  sides ;  leave  bottom 
open,  else  they  will  decay  and  iron  will  rust. 
There  may  be  a  floor,  or  a  simple  scaffolding  of 
poles  under  the  hay,  to  let  air  under.  The  braces 
will  not  look  bad  and  will  be  absolutely  out  of 
the  way.  You  can  place  bents  16'  apart.  Have 
several  transverse  driveways  through  the  barn. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


257 


JOIST  FRAME  HAY  BARRACKS. 

"Where  hay  is  to  be  stored  under  roof  and  no 
stock  to  be  provided  for,  this  simple  frame  {Fig. 
433),  which  is  easily  made  of  2"  stuff,  or  of 
part  round  poles  if  desired,  commends  itself  as 
being  simple,  strong  and  cheap.  There  should 
be  braces  running  the  long  way  of  the  building 
at  the  same  angle  shown  in  the  cut  to  protect 
against  winds.  The  artist  fails  to  show  all  the 
detail   of   the   curb   roof,   which   must   be   tied 


bottom  board.     It  is  better  to  provide  separate 
troughs  for  feeding  grain. 


FIG.    433.       JOIST    FRAME    HAT    BARRACKS. 

together  by  collar  beams  at  the  peak  and  effect- 
ually tied  at  the  angles  of  the  rafters.  Reference 
to  roofs  of  barns  shown  in  more  detail  will  ex- 
plain the  roof  and  how  the  plates  are  put  on. 

FEED  RACKS  AND  TROUGHS. 

A  PRACTICAL  FEED  RACK  FOR  SHEEP, 

Cheapness,  simplicit}^  and  effectiveness  are  the 
three  strong  points  of  this  rack.  Fig.  434 
shows  the  construction.  The  end  pieces  are  of 
2"  X  4"  pine,  the  bottom  boards  are  of  1"  x  12" 
and  the  top  boards  are  set  at  an  angle  and  leave 
a  wide  opening  through  which  the  hay  descends 
and  plenty  of  room  for  the  sheep  to  thrust  their 
heads  in  to  eat.  This  form  of  rack  gives  the 
animals  easy  access  to  every  bit  of  the  feed  and 
prevents  any  waste  of  consefjuence,  for  when 
sheep  can  thrust  their  heads  in  they  let  them 
remain  there  and  eat  without  drawing  the  hay 
out  and  trampling  it  under  foot.  In  general  this 
rack  is  built  without  a  bottom,  though  if  it  is 
desired  to  feed  grain  in  it  there  may  be  provided 
a  tight  bottom,  putting  it  about  midway  of  the 


2X6' PLANK 


2X6"Pif\HK 


FIG.    434.       PRACTICAL    FEED    RACK    FOR    SHEEP. 

A  SELF-FEEDING   MANGER   AND  STALL, 

This  stall-manger  plan  can  be  used  in  nearly 
any  form  of  building.  The  stalls  being  only  3' 
to  3'  4",  as  may  be  preferred,  in  width  and  com- 
ing out  2'  from  the  manger,  the  front  edge  of 
stall  being  perpendicular  as  shown  in  Fig.  435, 
there  is  no  danger  of  animals  getting  hemmed 
in  or  injured  in  any  way. 


fry    Cai<^. 


FIG.    435.       SELF- FEEDING    MANGER    AND    STALL. 


258 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


On  the  outside  of  the  building  above  the  top 
of  the  manger  there  is  an  opening  in  the  siding 
for  feeding  silage,  ground  grain,  bran,  cotton- 
seed meal  and  the  like.  This  is  closed  by  a 
shutter  turning  up  or  down  as  desired.  The 
stalls  should  be  braced  from  near  the  end  of  the 
2"  X  4"  support  of  the  manger  to  near  the  mid- 
dle of  manger  and  closed  between  the  brace  and 
side  of  the  stall  so  that  stock  cannot  get  their 
feet  fastened.  Fig.  435  is  thus  described :  A,  A, 
hay  chute  2'  wide,  continuous  with  building.  B, 
outer  door  to  feed  silage  or  grain  of  any  sort 
without  disturbing  cattle ;  rack  hung  out  from 
siding  may  carry  car  to  distribute  silage.  C, 
wooden  partitions  between  stalls;  partitions  36" 
to  42"  between  centers,  44"  from  hay  chute  to 
outside  of  partition ;  outer  piece  of  partition 
should  be  2"  x  6"  firmly  fastened  to  stub-post 
set  in  ground.  D,  two  boards  1"  x  6"  to  brace 
the  upper  part  of  partitions. 

A   COLORADO   SHEEP-FEEDING   RACK. 

In  Colorado  self-feeders  are  very  popular  in 
feeding  hay  to  sheep.  A  self-feeder  saves  time 
and  feed.     Although  the  representation  given 


FIG.    436.       COLORADO    SHEEP-FEEDING    RACK. 

here  {Fig.  438)  may  involve  a  little  more  outlay 
for  material  than  some  hay  racks,  it  is  counted 
very  economical,  because  it  prevents  much  waste 


accompanying  the  use  of  most  devices  while 
sheep  are  eating.  When  panels  are  used  usually 
one  linear  foot  per  sheep  is  allowed.  With  this 
feeder  4"  per  sheep  is  ample  space. 

HAY  RACK  AND  FEEDER  FOR  SHEEP. 

The  simple  hay  rack  shown  in  Fig.  437  is  used 
in  feeding  in  silage,  grain  or  hay,  or  all  three 
together   at   one  time.     The   main  thing  is  to 


.■•1  <  4 

... 

■>          -                                    1 

z 
o 

ro 

UJ 

2 
V 

I'x  6  _ 

"board 

00 

FIG 

1 

_ 

FIG.    437.       HAY   RACK   AND  FEEDER  FOR   SHEEP. 


FIG.    439.       HAY   RACK   AND   FEEDER  FOR   SHEEP. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


259 


have  it  so  made  that  the  sheep  or  lamb  can  read- 
ily thrust  its  head  clear  in  and  hold  it  there 
while  it  eats.  The  spaces  should  not  be  so  open 
that  small  sheep  or  large  lambs  can  get  in  with 
their  feet.  The  type  is  adapted  to  the  use  of 
mature  sheep  and  lambs  past  5  months  old.  It 
is  substantially  a  flat-bottomed  feed  trough  24" 
wide  and  tight  bottom,  a  hay  rack  above  and  at- 
tached to  it.  It  is  easily  and  cheaply  built  and 
effective.  If  the  ewes  have  young  lambs  at  their 
sides  a  different  rack  is  advisable ;  one  with  slats 
closer  together  is  best. 

Figs.  438  and  439  show  a  combination  feeder 
in  use  on  Fillmore  Farms,  Tranquillity  Farms, 
and  other  good  sheep  farms.  There  is  probably 
nothing  better  for  ewes  with  lambs.  The  speci- 
fications are:  trough,  6"  wide  at  bottom,  14" 
at  top  of  slant.  The  trough  is  7"  high  at  the 
front  and  11"  at  back.  The  slats  are  2"  wide, 
1"  thick,  rounded,  spaced  3"  apart.  The  frame 
is  2'  X  3'.  The  rack  may  be  made  in  any  length 
and  placed  so  as  to  divide  spaces.  Fig.  439  shows 
the  rack  complete. 

TROUGHS    AND    SHEDS   FOR    500    LAMBS. 

In  providing  troughs  sufficient  to  accommo- 
date western  lambs  simultaneously  one  should 
have  24  troughs,  each  16'  long.  The  troughs 
should  be  placed  8'  apart  to  allow  the  lambs 

END   VIEW  ''--j. 


HOLE  FOR  LOCK  ^  o 

PIN 

END  BLOCK 

HOLE  FOR  IRON  iflN^-^o 
SUPPORTING  TR0|I6H3%  Q\\l' 


HOLE  FOR  LOCK 
PIN 


\x\Z 


I     rx6"     I 


FIG.      440.       TROUGHS     AND     SHEDS     FOR     500      LAMBS. 


ENDIILOCK 


-- 

SIDE  VIEW 

"-^ 

1                                IV  6" 

1^12'"                        \ 
BOTTOM                              \^ 

1                                   I'x  6-                                                   \ 

ample  freedom  in  getting  to  their  feed  quickly. 
In  making  troughs  it  is  important  to  avoid  the 
mistake  sometimes  made  by  nailing  the  end 
pieces  of  troughs  to  inch  side-boards.  A  very 
satisfactory  trough  is  represented  in  Figs.  440  to 
443. 

Figs.  440  and  441  represent  a  trough  on  edge, 
giving  respectively  an  end  view  and  a  side  view, 


rie.3  no  4 

FIG.      442.       TROUGHS     AND     SHEDS     FOR     500     LAMBS. 


FIG  6 


FIG. 5 


POLE 


FIG.     441.       TROUGHS     AND     SHEDS     FOR     500     LAMBS. 


FIG.      443.       TROUGHS     AND     SHEDS     FOR     500     LAMBS. 

with  end  block  removed.  Details:  bottom 
1"  X  12";  sideboards  1"  x  6";  end  block  3" 
X  6"  X  12" ;  hole  for  iron  pin  supporting 
trough ;  holes  for  lock  pin.  These  reversible 
troughs  may  be  hung  upon  posts  set  in  the 
ground  with  2"  block  with  hole  for  lock  pin, 
nailed  to  side  of  post,  as  shown  in  Fig.  442. 
Trough  should  be  hung  14"  or  15"  above  the 
ground.  In  either  case  poles  should  be  pro- 
vided above  troughs  to  prevent  sheep  jumping 
over  troughs. 

A   still  more   effective   means   of  preventing 


260 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


slieep  from  standing  with  their  front  feet  in 
troughs — a  habit  very  delightful  to  them  in 
muddy  weather — may  be  secured  by  using  two 
poles  over  each  trough,  one  over  each  side,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  443. 

If  panels  are  used  in  feeding  hay,  1'  per  head 
should  be  allowed.  Panels  should  have  an  8" 
space  for  lambs  to  feed  through,  between  a  12" 
bottom  board  and  a  6"  board  next  above.  A 
second  6"  board  at  the  top  may  be  spaced  6"  or 
8"  above  the  middle  board.  If  self-feeders  are 
used  in  feeding  hay  4"  per  head  will  be  sufficient. 

GENERAL-PURPOSE  SHEEP  RACK. 

A  sheep  rack  for  feeding  fodder,  hay  or  grain, 
to  have  a  tight  Ijottom,  be  set  against  the  back 
wall  of  a  barn  and  extend  up  to  the  mow  floor  so 
that  one  can  feed  corn  fodder  from  the  mow 
with  but  one  handling,  is  shown  in  Fig.  444. 
Let  the  rack  be  18"  wide  and  composed  of 
1"  X  6"  boards  set  vertically  and  spaced  7" 
apart.  Let  the  grain  trough  be  a  simple  box 
16"   wide,    inside    measure,    and    6"    deep,    and 


SELF-FEEDER  FOR   CATTLE. 

Herewith  is  a  diagram  {Fig.  445)  of  a  selt- 
feeder  for  cattle  that  can  be  built  on  posts  or 
built  on  runners  of  4"  x  8"  pieces,  so  that  it  can 
be  moved  more  easily.  The  troughs  should  l)e 
2'  wide  and  have  a  space  of  ly^'  at  the  bottom 
of  feeder  for  the  corn  to  run  out  into  the 
troughs.     The  2"  x  4"  pieces  on  the  side  should 


FIG.    445.       SELF-FEEDER    FOE   CATTLE. 


MOW  FLOOR 


FEED  BOX    ) 
/ADJUSTABLE  J 


LONGITUDINAL   SECTION 

FIG.     444.       GENERAL-PURPOSE    SHEEP     RACK. 


made  to  fit  closely  but  not  tightly  between  the 
front  of  the  rack  and  the  side  of  the  barn.  Do 
not  fasten  the  feed  box  in  place.  Provide  holes 
through  the  vertical  boards  and  corresponding 
holes  at  the  back  to  the  siding  of  the  barn  and 
thrust  %"  iron  rods  through  under  the  box  to 
hold  it  up.  Then  as  manure  accumulates  in 
the  shed  the  feed  box  will  be  raised  and  the  rods 
thrust  in  higher  holes. 

The  vertical  1"  x  6"  boards  will  go  to  the  loft, 
but  a  part  of  them  will  need  to  be  cut  arid  hinged 
so  that  they  may  be  let  down,  or  raised  up,  for 
the  purpose  of  reaching  in  and  taking  out  the 
coarser  refuse  parts  of  the  cornstalks.  The  wide 
spaces  between  slats  allow  sheep  to  thrust  their 
heads  clear  in  and  they  eat  with  less  waste  than 
when  they  must  pull  the  forage  out  and  trample 
it  under  feet. 


be  8'  apart  at  the  top  and  4'  at  the  bottom,  so 
the  sides  will  be  slanting. 

SELF-FEEDERS  FOR  OPEN   LOTS. 

The  self-feeder  for  cattle  shown  in  Fig.  446 
is  for  an  open  feedlot  or  pasture.  When  cattle 
are  made  to  put  their  heads  through  spaces  like 
this  to  eat  their  food  much  outside  waste  is 
saved.  The  dimensions  of  this  feeder  are  about 
right  for  cattle  weighing,  say,  1,000  pounds.  In 
making  it  use  bolts  freely. 


FIG.    446.       SELF-FEEDER    FOR    OPEN    LOTS. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


261 


SHEEP  RACK  AT  IOWA  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 

The  sheep  rack  shown  in  Fig.  447  has  been 
used  with  satisfaction  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station.  The  rack  is  8'  long,  18"  wide  and  38" 
highi  This  size  is  found  convenient  for  small 
pens,  but  any  size  may  be  used  to  suit  the  re- 
quirements. Economy  of  time  and  material 
may  be  gained  by  making  the  rack  a  little  wider 
and  feeding  from  both  sides.  Fig.  447  gives  a 
side  view  of  the  rack  as  used  for  feeding  hay, 
also  an  end  view,  showing  operation  of  grain 
trough  and  explaining  method  of  construction. 

The  bottom  of  the  rack  (C)  is  14"  from  the 
ground  floor.  The  front  is  boarded  tight  from 
A  to  B,  a  distance  of  14"  and  slopes  inward, 
making  B  4"  inside  of  the  perpendicular  line 
A  C.  A  3"  strip  extends  across  the  front  join- 
ing on  to  the  bottom  to  prevent  the  chaff  and 
seeds  from  being  worked  out.     The  space  from 


CORN  FODDER  RACK  FOR  CATTLE. 

The  plan  shown  in  Fig.  448  for  a  rack  for 
out-of-door  feeding  combines  strength,  economy 
of  lumber,  protection  from  hogs  and  very  little 
waste  of  fodder,  while  it  is  also  easily  raised 
as  the  stalks  accumulate  or  moved  entirely  to 
another  place.  For  material,  elm,  oak  or  any 
other  tough  native  lumber  will  do  better  than 
pine ;  in  fact,  one  would  need  4"  x  4s"  of  pine  to 
stand  the  strain  as  posts  where  2"  x  4s"  of  elm 
or  oak  will  do  as  well.  Some  414"  machine 
bolts  are  also  needed.  Fig.  448  shows  part  of 
one  side  of  the  rack,  indicating  how  the  panels 
are  joined  together  and  l)olted  to  the  posts,  and 
how  each  post  is  braced  to  the  one  opposite,  the 
post  on  the  opposite  side  being  shown  in  per- 
spective with  dotted  lines  to  indicate  the  position 
of  parts  that  are  hidden  from  view. 

In  making,  cut  2"  x  4s"  into  6'  or  8'  lengths 


mmnnnnmi 


A 

y 

1 

y 

/' 

/' 

1 

/ 

I 

/ 

1  \ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

\ 

V      ~^ 

J\^e. 

\ 

J5 

\ 

\ 

/ 

s 

/ 

^^^ 

c 

F 

FIG.    447.       SHEEP    RACK    AT    IOWA    EXPERIMENT    STATION. 


C  to  B  (8")  gives  the  sheep  access  to  the  hay, 
and  is  separated  into  3"  spaces  by  narrow  cleats, 
as  shown  on  left.  The  grain  is  fed  in  a  trough 
consisting  of  two  boards  joined  together,  as 
shown  in  end  view,  one  being  6"  and  the  other 
12"  in  width  and  both  of  the  same  length  as 
the  rack.  The  trough  is  attached  by  hinges  to 
the  front  of  the  rack  at  a  point  midway  between 
A  and  C  and  can  be  lowered  for  grain  feeding 
and  fastened  up  out  of  the  way  when  the  grain 
is  eaten,  as  shown  in  Fig.  447.  All  lumber  used 
should  be  planed  on  one  side  at  least  and  the 
grain  trough  should  be  planed  on  both  sides. 
The  hayrack  of  itself  is  a  good  one  and  gives 
good  satisfaction  used  alone.  The  grain  feed- 
ing attachment  is  easily  and  cheaply  made,  oc- 
cupies no  room  when  not  in  use  and  makes  the 
rack  complete. 


for  posts;  6'  will  do  if  the  rack  is  used  only  a 
portion  of  the  season ;  if  used  in  one  place  the 
whole  season  make  8'  posts.  These  posts  will 
stand  on  top  of  the  ground,  one  at  each  corner 
of  the  rack  and  at  intervals  of  about  8'  along 
the  sides.  Using  1"  stuff  for  ties  and  braces, 
nail  a  5'  board  across  the  top  of  each  pair  of 
posts,  thus  making  the  rack  5'  wide  and  brace 
the  posts  well.  It  makes  a  stronger  rack  to  put 
the  braces  at  the  bottom,  but  if  the  rack  will 
need  to  l)e  moved  to  a  new  place  during  the  Avin- 
ter  it  is  better  to  brace  at  the  top  so  that  i\yd 
posts  can  be  pulled  up  out  of  the  stalks.  Leave 
the  4"  faces  of  the  posts  toward  the  sides  of  the 
rack.  With  the  posts  all  made  up  into  bents  of 
two  each,  prop  one  pair  up  vertically  for  an 
end  and  bolt  on  the  top  rails — long  2"  x  4s" — 
one  at  each  side  of  the  rack  at  a  height  of  41/2'- 
Each  bent  is  raised  in  turn  and  bolted  to  this 
top    rail    and   where   two    lengths    of   top    rail 


262 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


join  they  may  be  either  lapped  at  a  post  with 
one  long  bolt  or  the  post  set  far  enough  from 
the  lap  so  that  a  41/2"  bolt  will  do  at  the  post 
and  another  at  the  splice.  This  allows  all  bolts 
to  be  of  one  size  but  takes  more  of  them.  All 
holes  should  be  bored  big  enough  so  that  the  bolts 
may  be  slipped  in  and  out  with  the  fingers. 

About  12"  to  15"  in  length  of  rack  or  2'  to 
214'  of  perimeter  should  be  allowed  for  each 
steer.  The  bottom  rail  is  bolted  on  at  21/2' 
from  the  ground,  making  even  joints  with  the 
rail  above.  Next  nail  on  1"  x  28"  slats  ver- 
tically from  top  to  bottom  rail  on  the  outside 
of  the  rack,  and  near  the  ends  of  each  panel  and 
at  intervals  of  4'  or  5'  between  put  4I/2'  slats 
reaching  from  top  rail  to  ground.  Below  the 
bottom  rail  slip  in  two  12"  boards  between  the 
posts  and  the  long  shafts  and  nail  them  to  the 


IZE 


',  t 


FIG.  448.   CORN  FODDER  RACK  FOR  CATTLE. 

slats  but  not  to  the  posts.  These  boards  should 
be  the  same  length  as  the  rails  so  that  the  sep- 
aration into  panels  is  complete. 

Now  an  important  thing  is  the  spacing  of  the 
slats.  For  horned  cattle  they  should  be  at  least 
2'  apart;  for  dehorned  cattle  12"  in  the  clear 
is  the  best  distance,  and  where  necessary  in  order 
to  make  the  spacing  even  they  may  be  put  as 
close  as  11".  In  a  rack  without  slats  the  stalks 
are  easily  pulled  out  under  the  feet;  in  fact, 
yie  common  way  of  eating  is  to  take  an  ear 
or  a  bite  of  leaves  and  back  out  from  the  rack 
to  eat  it,  letting  the  stalk  with  whatever  feed 
may  be  left  on  it  drop  to  the  ground.  Then 
again  the  steers  form  the  babit  of  rooting  the 
stalks  aside  with  a  swinging  motion  of  the  head 
which  sends  them  out  of  the  rack  if  there  are 
no  slats  to  prevent  it.  Of  course  with  horned 
cattle  the  slats  cannot  be  put  close  enough  to- 


gether to  be  the  most  effective  in  preventing 
waste;  or  some  of  the  steers  cannot  get  their 
heads  in,  or  else  once  in  are  caught  and  get  badly 
scratched  up  by  the  other  steers  unless  they  can 
pull  off  a  slat.  "With  dehorned  steers  and  slats 
j)ut  close  they  form  the  habit  of  standing  with 
the  head  inside  the  rack  while  they  eat  rather 
than  bump  it  against  the  slats  in  backing  out 
with  each  mouthful;  thus  almost  none  of  the 
feed  is  pulled  out  under  the  feet,  and  the  steers 
work  the  fodder  over  thoroughly  in  the  rack, 
leaving  the  coarsest  parts  of  the  stalks  to  be 
thrown  out  before  the  next  feed  is  thrown  in. 

With  this  sort  of  rack  hogs  can  be  allowed  to 
run  with  cattle  all  the  time  and  thus  clean  up 
after  them  much  more  thoroughly  than  if  run 
in  alternate  lots  a  day  behind  the  cattle. 

When  the  stalks  accumulate  about  a  foot  deep 
around  the  rack  so  that  it  is  a  little  low  for  the 
steers  and  likely  to  rub  the  tops  of  their  necks 
bare,  and  so  the  hogs  begin  trying  to  climb  in 
it,  bore  holes  in  the  posts  a  foot  above  the  others 
and  raise  the  rack  a  panel  at  a  time  and  bolt 
it  on  again.  There  are  no  cracks  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  panels  for  stalks  to  work  through 
and  bind  it  down,  and  even  if  things  are  frozen 
so  that  racks  made  in  solid,  independent,  16' 
sections  with  ends  attached  could  not  be  pried 
up  through  the  stalks,  these  light  panels  can 
easily  be  pried  up  one  at  a  time.  There  is  no 
particular  need  of  moving  it  to  a  new  place 
each  time,  for  the  manure  from  the  stalks  is 
better  to  be  piled  deep,  and  the  steers  will  leave 
very  little  scattered  corn  inside  the  rack.  This 
corn  will  not  rot  till  after  spring  opens  and  at 
that  time  the  rack  can  be  thrown  open  and  the 
hogs  allowed  to  clean  it  up.  The  panels  can 
then  be  put  under  shelter  until  the  rack  is 
needed  again  for  feeding  purposes 

ANOTHER  GOOD  SHEEP-FEEDING  RACK. 

Into  the  rack  shown  in  Fig.  449  hay  falls  to 
the  sheep  as  they  eat  it  and  they  do  not  nose 


FIG.    449.       ANOTHER  GOOD  SHEEP  FEEDING  RACK. 


MI8GELLANE0  US. 


263 


\ 


it  all  over,  and  lambs  may  run  there  without 
being  on  top  of  the  hay  all  the  time.  This  rack 
is  to  a  certain  extent  a  self-feeder,  and  though 
it  is  not  recommended  to  feed  sheep  in  any 
other  way  than  what  they  will  eat  at  one  time 
it  is  an  advantage  to  have  a  little  hay  left  for 
the  weaker  ones.  They  waste  very  little  hay 
with  this  rack  and  as  it  has  no  bottom  it  can  be 
raised  and  then  moved  by  one  man.  The  frame 
is  made  of  2"  x  6"s  edgewise ;  for  the  block  at 
the  bottom  saw  2"  x  6s"  diagonally ;  nail  12" 
board  along  the  bottom  lengthwise,  then  take 
three  10"  boards  and  nail  up  the  front;  set  the 
bottom  10"  level  with  the  12"  or  about  1" 
higher ;  make  the  rack  with  a  frame  about  every 
4',  omitting  cross-piece  except  at  the  center, 
and  this  is  not  necessary  unless  the  rack  is  to 
be  moved  about.  For  rack  to  feed  only  one  side 
make  18"  between  studs.  The  sides  may  be 
made  separate  and  set  against  light  posts.  Do 
not  nail,  but  wire  so  they  can  be  raised. 

A  HAY  SELF-FEEDER. 

This  is  a  combined  feeder  and  windbreak. 
The  hay  should  in  any  event  be  covered,  and 
a  little  additional  roof  covers  the  cattle  as  well. 
A  cross-section  of  the  feeder  is  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.     450.       HAY    SELF-FEEDER. 

450.  Corn  or  bran  or  any  ground  feed  may 
also  be  fed  in  the  bottom  on  the  tight  tloor. 
The  posts  are  set  in  the  ground.  Galvanized 
steel  corrugated  roofing  is  used.  Such  a  feeder 
and  windbreak  along  the  cold  side  of  the  yard 
would  be  useful  on  many  a  farm  to  hold  bright 
straw,  shredded  fodder  or  hay. 


COMBINED  IIAY  AND  GRAIN  RACK. 

The  cross-section  of  this  rack,  shown  in  Fig. 
451,  explains  its  construction.  It  is  a  corn  box, 
very  strongly  made  to  resist  the  pushing  of  big 
cattle,  with  added  hay  slots  spaced  4"  apart  to 


IK\                             7jjl 

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.-:       w/ 

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rijhf'  ^ott^^ 

5 
^ 

X 

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o 
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FIG.     451.       COMBINED    H.\Y    AND    GRAIN    RACK. 

hold  hay.  What  is  pulled  through  mostly  drops 
in  the  boxes  and  is  consumed  or  may  bo  thrown 
back  into  the  rack.  The  tight  bottom  admits  of 
the  feeding  of  any  kind  of  grain. 

SELF-FEEDER    IN    HORSE 's    FEED-BOX. 

Fig.  452  shows  a  self-feeder  to  be  built  in  the 
feed-box  of  each  horse  at  the  end  farthest  from 
the  horse.  It  stops  the  "hogging"  of  the  feed 
and  the  waste  of  grain  by  slobbering,  insures 
better  mastication,  and  less  grain  fed  this  way 


FIG.     452.       SELF-FEEDER     IN     HORSE'S     FEED-BOX. 

will  give  as  good  results  as  more  fed  the  old 
way. 

The  hopper  can  be  made  to  hold  any  desired 
amount.  Ear  corn  and  mash  can  be  fed  in  the 
remainder  of  the  feed-box.  The  front  wall 
should  be  made  with  slight  backward  slope. 
Explanatory:  1.  Shoulder  of  chute ;  should  be 
extended  an  inch  beyond.  2.  Front  wall  of 
feeder.  3.  Back  wall  of  original  feed-box.  4. 
Side  of  feed-box.    5.    Lid  of  feeder. 


264 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


CATTLE  YARD  AND  SELF-FEEDER  FOR  HAY, 

The  feeding  of  cattle  in  open  yards  is  cora- 
rnoiily  practiced,  yet  shelter  pays  well.  Small 
yards  too  are  recommended  and  they  may  be 
paved  to  advantage.     ( See  Fig.  453. ) 

The  hay  feeder  of  which  a  cross-section 
is  shown  in  Fig.  454  holds  two  loads  of  hay 
which  is  all  eaten  without  waste.     Corn  boxes 


r- 

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FIG.    453.        CATTLE    YARD    AND    SELF-FEEDER    FOR    HAT. 


FIG.    4  54.       CATTLE    YARD    AND    SELF-FEEDER   FOR    HAY. 

are  set  under  the  roof,  leaving  room  to  drive 
between  them  and  the  hay  feeder.  The  yard 
need  not  be  more  than  large  enough  to  complete 
the  square,  then  all  manure  is  saved  and  less 
litter  needed  to  keep  it  dry. 


SHEEP   FEEDING  RACK   AND    TROUGH. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  (Figs.  455  to 
457)  are  of  a  self- feeding  hay  rack  and  invert- 
ible  sheep  feeding  trough,  representing  types 
now  commonly  found  in  uise  in  the  sheep  feed- 
ing section  of  Colorado.     Years  of  experience 


FIG.     455.       SHEEP    FEEDING    RACK    AND    TROUGH. 


of  i>elt Fi-ed'n^  ffa_^ /?ack  for'Shcep 

FIG.     456.       SHEEP    FEEDING    RACK    AND    TROUGH. 


£nd ¥iew  ^idt  VieM of  tM¥eHtbtf  ^hecpFeedinjTfou^h 

FIG.     457.       SHEEP    FEEDING    RACK    AND    TROUGH. 


have  led  the  feeders  of  that  section  to  adopt 
these  types  of  feeding  devices.  The  construction 
of  the  hay  rack  is  such  as  to  save  all  the  hay. 
Experiments  conducted  by  the  feeders  themselves 
have  proved  that  there  is  a  saving  of  25  per 
cent  in  the  amount  of  hay  fed  in  one  of  these 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


265 


h 


racks  as  compared  to  any  other  form  of  rack  used 
in  that  section. 

The  bottom  of  the  rack  is  of  tight  construc- 
tion. The  neck  space  is  just  wide  enough  to 
admit  the  sheep's  head,  and  does  not  permit  it 
to  pull  out  hay  and  waste  it.  The  hay  settles  in 
the  rack  and  needs  very  little  pushing  down.  The 
grain  trough  being  double  or  reversible  makes  it 
possible  always  to  have  clean  feeding  conditions. 
It  is  found  far  superior  to  the  single  upright 
trough  and  is  l)ut  slightly  more  expensive. 

BUILDING  A  HAY  SHED. 

In  building  a  hay  shed  30'  long  by  26'  wide 
and  24'  to  the  plates,  in  which  a  fork  is  to  be 


used,  the  plan  {Fig.  463)  shows  how  to  brace 
and  support  the  room  to  admit  passage  of  hay- 
forks from  the  end.  The  rafters  are  2 "  x  6",  18' 
long.    It  is  an  open  shed. 


FIG.     4G0.       SELF-FEEDER    FOR    MIXED    FEEDS. 


FIG.     458.       CORNBELT    SHED    FOR    HAY    FEEDING. 


PIG.    459.       WISCONSIN    SELF-FEEDER    FOR    SHEEP. 


PIG.     461.       A    PORTABLE    FEED    BACK. 


266 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


SIDE   ELEVATION 

PIG.     462.       HAY    SHED      (FRAME) 


CROSS    SECTION 

FIG.     463.       HAY    SHED     (CROSS-SECTION). 


Every  bent  must  be  tied  at  the  20'  height  and  sided  or  not  it  had  best  have  some  ties  on  the 

then  the  brace  to  the  rafters  at  the  place  where  outside  posts, 
ties  enter  posts  will  be  safe  with  a  short  collar 

beam  of  inch  boards  to  each  pair  of  rafters  to  ^^^d  idea  in  feed  racks. 

which  the  track  is  fastened.    The  building  should  The  cuts  Figs.  464  and  465  are  self-explana- 

be  well  braced  as  indicated,  as  otherwise  it  would  tory.     By  hitching  a  team  on  one  end  of  this 

be  liable  to  blow  down  when  empty.     Whether  unique  rack  it  can  be  moved  very  easily.     The 


.  . .  ...^t.S.  "^y, 


FIG.     464.       GOOD    IDEA    IN    FEEO    RACKS. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


267 


FIG.    465.       GOOD    IDEA    IN    FEED    RACKS. 


18'  ark  holds  1,000  pounds  of  hay  or  one  ton 
of  sorghum.  The  frame-work  is  made  mostly  out 
of  2"  X  4"s  except  the  runners,  which  are 
2"  X  6". 

FARM  FENCES. 

There  is  nothing  on  the  farm  that  adds  more 
to  the  appearance  of  the  place  than  a  good 
fence.  There  may  be  some  choice  as  to  the  kind 
of  fence  one  would  want  to  use  but  there  is  no 
choice  as  to  the  way  it  should  be  built.  Every 
fence  should  be  carefully  built ;  it  will  last  longer 
and  increase  actual  value  of  the  farm.  The 
late  Jeremiah  M.  Rusk  said:  "Show  me  the 
farmer's  fence  and  I  will  tell  you  the  kind  of 
farmer  he  is," 

Fences  have  been  used  in  one  form  or  other 
ever  since  men  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  stock 
raising.  In  ancient  times  the  sheep  were  some- 
times corralled  in  enclosures  made  of  tenting. 
Afterwards  came  the  stone  fence,  the  picket 
fence  and  the  zigzag  rail  fence  that  are  now 
relics  of  the  past. 

The  three  kinds  of  fences  that  are  in  general 
use  today  are  the  board  fence,  the  barbed-wire 
fence  and  the  woven  wire  fence.  Barbed-wire 
has  been  used  quite  extensively,  but  it  is  no 
doubt  nearing  its  end  of  service,  since  at  the 
present  time  the  woven  wire  fence  either  alone 
or  in  combination  with  the  barbed  wire  is  com- 
ing more  and  more  into  use.    The  woven  wire  is 


proving  to  be  a  very  substantial  fence  and  one 
best  suited  for  ordinary  farm  fields. 

FENCE  POSTS. 

Corresponding  to  the  foundation  of  a  build- 
ing are  the  posts,  which  are  necessary  in  the  con- 
struction of  all  fences.  The  cost  as  compared 
with  the  durability  of  the  post  is  the  thing  to 
be  considered  when  making  the  selection  of 
posts. 

Of  the  wood  posts  red  cedar  gives  the  best 
service.  Good  cedar  posts  cost  from  15  to  20 
cents  apiece.  "While  oak  posts  are  cheaper  they 
are  shorter  lived  than  cedar  and  are  disagreeable 
to  work  with  because  they  are  so  hard.  In  parts 
of  the  country  where  stone  can  be  quarried, 
stone  posts  are  often  used.  They  cost  from  25 
to  50  cents  and  are  very  heavy  to  handle,  but 
when  once  in  the  ground  they  are  there  to  stay. 

Wooden  fence  posts  are  becoming  more  and 
more  scarce  as  the  timber  of  the  country  is  cut, 
and  the  price  is  constantly  increasing.  A  sub- 
stitute for  wooden  posts  is  now  being  introduced 
in  the  form  of  cement  posts.  It  is  the  same 
material  used  in  concrete  sidewalks.  The  claims 
made  for  these  posts  are  that  they  surpass  in 
smoothness  of  wear  and  freedom  of  cleavage  by 
frost  or  breaking  by  blows,  as  in  the  case  of 
building  stones.  The  posts  are  also  claimed  to 
be  fire,  rot,  frost  and  rust-proof,  much  stronger 
than  wood  and  to  improve  instead  of  degenerate 
with  age.     There  are  several  different  patterns 


268 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


of  these  posts  on  the  market.  The  weight  of  the 
posts  is  against  long  shipments,  but  a  farmer  can 
make  his  own  posts  with  the  least  possible  out- 
lay. One  or  two  molds  and  a  level  piece  of 
ground  covered  with  sand  2"  or  3"  thick  com- 
prise the  necessary  machinery. 

The  molds  made  of  cypress  will  cost  about 
$3  each  and  those  made  of  pine  will  cost  about 
half  as  much.  One  style  of  these  posts  is  41/2" 
square  at  the  ground  line  and  tapers  on  three 
sides  to  3"  sc^uare  at  the  top  and  314"  S(iuare  at 
the  bottom,  and  also  makes  a  small  truss  of  the 
four  wires  which  run  lengthwise  through  the 
post.  The  post  can  be  made  any  length  desired, 
a  6'  post  weighing  about  50  pounds  when  cured. 
The  approximate  cost  is  about  as  follows:  1^^ 
pounds  No.  8  wire  at  $1.80  per  cwt.,  2.7  cents, 
and  8  pounds  cement  at  60  cents  per  cwt.,  4.8 
cents  (gravel  and  labor  not  included  in  the 
cost)  would  be  per  6'  post  7.5  cents.  A  6i/^' 
post  at  this  rate  would  cost  8.25  cents. 

Small  holes  are  molded  through  the  post 
parallel  to  the  fence  and  in  the  direction  which 
the  fence  runs.  Through  these  holes  a  short 
wire  is  run  and  wrapped  around  the  wire  of  the 
fence  at  each  side  of  the  post ;  in  the  same  way 
boards  can  be  attached.  The  posts  are  claimed 
to  be  very  strong.  No.  8  wire  is  capable  of 
holding  a  weight  of  1,800  pounds.  With  four 
of  them  in  the  post  it  makes  it  almost  indestruc- 
tible. Also  the  holes  through  the  posts  are  be- 
hind the  front  wires  so  that  should  the  cement 
be  knocked  off  in  front  the  wire  would  still  hold. 

The  posts  are  composed  of  three  parts  sand 
and  one  part  of  cement  mixed  thoroughly  dry 
first  and  then  wet  enough  to  pound  into  the 
mold  without  becoming  sloppy.  Enough  of  the 
wet  mixture  is  placed  in  the  mold  to  make 
about  li/o"  in  depth.  Then  it  is  pounded  down. 
Two  of  the  long  wires  with  hooks  on  each  end 
are  placed  in  lengthwise  with  the  cross  wires  to 
make  the  holes  through  which  the  tie  wires  pass. 
Next  fill  the  mold  to  within  1"  of  the  top,  place 
in  two  more  longitudinal  wires  and  tamp.  Fill 
up  the  mold  a  little  more  than  level  and  tamp 
again ;  smooth  off  and  turn  the  post  out  on  the 
wet  sand  floor  to  cure.  They  are  molded  face 
downward,  and  a  groove  runs  through  the  center 
of  the  face  in  which  can  be  placed  a  wire  for 
lightning  arrester.  Keep  posts  moist  for  four 
days  by  sprinkling. 

BUILDING  CONCRETE  CORNER  POSTS. 

Fig.  466  is  thus  described :  ' '  The  post  form  is 
made  in  two  sections  of  No.  18  galvanized  iron, 
and  when  joined  forms  a  cylinder.  A  cleat  on 
one  edge  of  each  section  holds  them  in  place  and 


three  iron  rings  of  ^"  x  1"  tire  iron  hold  the 
sections  together.  The  top  ring  is  solid;  the 
other  two  are  hinged  and  fasten  with  a  wedge- 
shaped  pin.  In  one  edge  of  one  section  at  the 
proper  place  have  two  holes  for  hinge  pins,  also 
two  I/2"  holes  10"  apart  for  an  iron  staple  as  a 
catch  for  the  gate  latch.  Dig  holes  4'  deep, 
about  12"  in  diameter  and  use  metal  for  rein- 
forcement. Fill  the  hole  with  concrete,  then 
place  the  form  on  and  continue  putting  in  hinge 
pins  or  gate  catches.  Use  a  barrel  of  cement  to 
a  yard  of  gravel  and  what  sand  the  gravel  needs. 
Work  down  the  side  of  the  form  with  a  thin 
light  tamp.     Take  the  form  off  the  next  day 


FIG.     4G6.       CONCRETE    CORNER    POST. 

carefully  and  paint  at  once  with  pure  cement 
mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  thick 
paint.  The  brace  form  is  made  of  two  sections, 
as  shown,  held  apart  by  a  2"  x  6"  and  together 
by  four  bolts.  Two  eyebolts  (%)  against  post 
and  6  pins  I/2"  with  eye  at  one  end  form  holes 
for  bringing  wire  through,  and  after  stretching 
one  simple  twist  over  the  wire  will  hold  tight. 
Have  a  piece  of  iron  5"  long  welded  across  the 
end  of  the  hinge  screw  hook  and  have  the  catches 
made  in  the  form  of  an  E  with  the  center  stem 
left  out.  It  requires  from  %  to  %  of  a  yard 
of  gravel  to  build  one  post  and  brace.  Part 
of  the  brace  form  is  hinged  about  the  center  so 
it  will  turn  down  until  the  lower  half  is  filled. 
Make  the  foundation  for  brace  about  18"  deep 
and  width  of  spade.  In  putting  in  the  top  hinge 
pin  allow  for  settling  by  lowering  outside  end 
about  %". 

TYPE  OF   CEMENT   ANCHOR  POST. 

Fig.  467  is  of  a  cement  anchor  post  built  in 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


269 


the  ground  41/2'  deep.  It  is  about  12"  square 
at  the  base  and  10"  at  the  top,  with  corners  taken 
off.  Insert  six  eyes  into  the  post  at  the  time  of 
building.     Into  these  eyes  insert  a  %"  rod  or 


WIRE 


'Bomsm-i^ 


SUA  fACE 


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s: 


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2||  CATCH 

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V.'.v.v 
FIG.    467.       TYPE    OF    CEMENT    ANCHOR    POST. 

gas  pipe,  and  attach  wires  to  the  rod.  The  post 
is  braced  by  cross  arms,  under  ground.  This  at- 
tachment is  neat  and  can  be  easily  adjusted  or 
removed.  No  brace  is  needed.  This  post  is  as 
cheap  as  a  wooden  post,  provided  one  makes  the 
post  himself,  which  anyone  can  do,  after  the 
form  is  built.  After  the  form  is  removed,  brush 
the  post  with  some  pure  cement  mixed  to  a 
consistency  of  cream. 

SETTING   FENCE   POSTS. 

Next  to  the  material  is  the  manner  of  setting 
the  posts.  In  building  a  fence  it  must  be  re- 
memliered  that  the  end  posts  are  the  mainstay 
of  the  whole  fence.  These  should  be  about  3" 
greater  in  diameter  and  about  2'  longer  than 
the  intermediate  posts.  The  hole  for  the  end 
posts  should  be  at  least  4'  deep,  if  5'  is  to  be 
above  the  ground,  and  should  be  3'  square.  In 
the  side  of  the  wooden  post  toward  the  end  of 
the  fence  and  about  7"  from  the  bottom  end  of 
the  post  a  piece  2"  x  6"  and  30"  long  should  be 
spiked  and  fastened  into  a  notch  in  the  post  cut 
for  it.  If  for  a  corner  another  piece  should  be 
fastened  above  it  and  at  right  angles  to  the  first. 
About  10'  from  the  end  post  in  line  with  the 
fence  another  post  about  the  same  size  should 
be  set  at  the  same  depth.  About  a  foot  from 
the  top  of  the  end  post  and  to  a  few  inches  above 
the  ground  on  the  other  should  be  extended 
diagonally  a  wooden  brace  4"  x  4",  being  fitted 
into  notches  cut  in  the  posts.  Another  brace  of 
twisted  wire  should  extend  from  near  the  top 
of  the  brace  post  to  the  bottom  of  the  end  post. 
The  intermediate  posts  should  be  about  7'  long 
and  4"  to  6"  in  diameter  and  should  be  placed 
21/2'  or  3'  in  the  ground  and  about  a  rod  apart. 
All  posts  must  be  in  perfect  line  from  top  to 
bottom,  otherwise  the  tension  will  pull  some  of 
the  staples.    The  wire  should  always  be  fastened 


on  the  side  of  the  posts  toward  the  field  where 
the  stock  is  kept. 


FIG.  46S.   SETTING  FENCE  POSTS. 


FIG.   469.   SETTING  FENCE  POSTS. 

Figs.  468  and  469  show  the  two  very  popular 
methods  of  bracing  end  or  corner  posts. 

Figs.  470,  471  and  472  show  cuts  of  woven 
wire  fences  constructed  from  galvanized  wire. 
These  fences  are  very  serviceable  and  are  suffi- 


5$  tN 

i 

47 

I 

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V 

32 

26 

20 

5 

vl 

t 

312. 

f_ 

Iz 

FIG.  470.   TYPE  OF  WIRE  FENCE. 


FIG.  471.   TYPE  OF  WIRE  FENCE. 


270 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ciently  strong,  and  woven  in  a  manner  to  en- 
close cattle,  horses,  sheep  or  hogs.  Some  farm- 
ers prefer  a  combination  fence  as  shown  in, 
Figs.  473  and  475.  This  is  a  good  kind  of  fence 
for  a  hog  pasture  and  will  turn  any  kind  of 


FIG.    472.       WOVEN    WIRE    FENCING. 

stock.  In  Fig.  473  is  shown  a  combination  woven 
and  barbed-wire  fence.  This  makes  a  cheaper 
fence  than  an  all-woven  one  of  the  same  height, 
since  the  26"  space  covered  by  the  three  barbed- 
wires  does  not  cost  as  much  as  woven  wire  26" 


high.  Even  with  an  all-woven  wire  fence  it  is 
often  advisable  to  have  a  barbed-wire  on  top,  so 
horses  will  not  reach  over  and  bend  down  the 
wire  on  top  of  the  woven  wire. 

The  old-fashioned  board  fence  is  rapidly  go- 
ing out  of  use  and  is  now  only  seen  around 
yards  and  short  stretches  near  buildings  where 
it  is  often  better  than  wire.  One  hundred  rods 
of  the  old  board  fence  would  cost  $85  for  the 
boards  alone.  It  takes  twice  as  manj^  posts  and 
is  much  more  tedious  to  build,  since  the  posts 
have  to  be  set  in  such  a  manner  as  to  let  the 
boards  meet.  This  kind  of  fence  completed 
would  cost  about  $1.20  per  rod.  This  puts  it 
out  of  competition  with  the  woven  wire  fence, 
since  the  best  54"  woven  wire  fence  can  be  pur- 
chased for  65  cents  or  less  per  rod  and  is  more 
sightly  and  serviceable. 

Fig.  476  shows  a  strong  hurdle  fence  com- 
posed entirely  of  ordinary  fence  boards.  The 
triangular  frames  which  serve  as  posts  are  each 
of  two  pieces  of  1"  boards  crossed  and  braced  as 
shown  in  Fig.  476.  The  panels  are  16'  long, 
each  composed  of  four  boards ;  in  setting  up  the 
fence  each  triangular  frame  supports  the  ends 
of  the  panels.  The  upper  and  lower  board  of 
each  panel  interlock  with  the  frame,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  476,  making  a  very  strong  fence.  This  is 
a  very  handy  fence  for  fencing  temporary  pas- 
tures and  is  often  used  to  divide  a  pasture  from 
tilled  land. 

Fig.  477  is  a  windbreak  and  is  used  to  inclose 
the  barnyard  or  feed-lot.  The  fence  is  gener- 
ally 8'  high,  but  some  prefer  6'.  The  boards 
should  be  on  the  side  next  to  the  feed-lot  so  that 
the  stock  by  rubbing  cannot  knock  the  boards 
off.  Although  primarily  this  fence  is  a  wind- 
break it  is  very  valuable  in  that  it  hides  the  ma- 
nure piles  and  general  disorder  of  the  feed-lot. 


FIG.     473.       COMBINATION     WOVEN     WIRE     AND    BARBED-WIRE    FENCE. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


271 


•»— ^ 


■i — 1 — r—t- 


*— f- 


/ 


MIL 


\ 


I 


UMl 


ITW 


TflTTOf 


l|t"'i|P 


7 


FIG.     475.       WIRE    AXD    BOARD    FENCE. 


i^igr.  478  represents  another  style,  a  very  neat 
farm  fence,  rather  preferable  to  the  old  straight 
fence.  It  saves  one  board  to  each  length  and  by 
nailing  on  the  two  upper  boards  as  shown  in  the 


C 


dl 


It 


m: 


±0 


3zr 


FIG.     476.       STRONG    HURDLES. 


FIG.     477.       WINDBREAK. 


illustration  great  additional  strength  is  given. 
These  boards  not  only  act  as  braces  but  as  ties 
also,  and  a  fence  built  on  well-set  posts  and 


FIG.     478.       FARM    FENCE. 

thoroughly  nailed  will  never  sag  or  get  out  of 
line  until  the  posts  rot  off. 

STONE  ANCHOR  WALLS  FOR  FENCE. 

]\Irs.  Virginia  C.  Meredith  of  Indiana  sub- 
mits the  accompanying  photographs  that  illus- 
trate stone-anchor  walls  used  with  wire  fence. 
These  walls  are  built  of  boulders  laid  in  ce- 
ment; they  are  8'  long,  2'  wide,  4'  6"  above 
ground  and  3'  under  ground.  In  building  them 
it  was  the  intention  to  get  something  that  would 
endure,  that  would  stand  plumb  and  at  the  same 
time  be  not  unsightly.  The  expense  is  greater 
than  that  of  putting  in  the  best  red  cedar  posts 
and  braces,  but  on  the  other  hand  there  is  every 
reason  to  think  that  these  walls  will  not  only 
stand  plumb  but  that  they  will  last  indefinitely. 
On  a  home  farm  it  is  worth  while  to  make  per- 
manent improvements.  To  make  the  holes 
through  which  the  wires  pass  (see  Fig.  480)  the 
stonemason  in  building  laid  gas  pipe  on  a  level 
at  the  required  distances  apart  and  before  the 
cement  hardened  withdrew  the  pipe. 

The  fence  shown  in  the  picture  is  of  four 
barbed  wires,  the  top  one  being  50"  from  the 
ground;  the  bottom  one  is  16"  from  the  ground. 
The  fence  is  an  outside  one  and  is  intended  to 
inclose  cattle  and  horses  upon  a  permanent  pas- 
ture. To  fence  an  entire  farm  for  hogs  seems  a 
needless  expense.  The  wire  is  fastened  only  at 
the  two  ends  at  the  anchor  walls.  It  is  fastened, 
after  passing  through  the  holes,  to  a  stretcher  or 
ratchet  by  means  of  which  it  may  be  stretched  as 
tight  as  desired.    Between  the  end  stone  anchor 


272 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     479.       STONE    ANCHOR    WALLS    FOK    FENCE. 


walls  small  red  cedar  posts  are  set  50'  apart  or 
less,  according  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Upon  the  cedar  posts  are  iron  insulators  through 
which  the  wires  pass  but  are  not  fastened.  Be- 
tween the  cedar  posts  the  wires  are  held  in  place 


by  steel  stays  at  distances  of  about  10'.  In  a 
short  line  of  fence,  100  rods  or  less,  the  wire 
is  attached  to  the  ratchet  or  stretcher  at  one  end 
only  while  at  the  other  end  it  is  wrapped  around 
a  vertical  piece  of  gas  pipe,  as  may  be  plainly 


STONE     ANCHOR     WALLS     FOR    FENCE. 


MISCELLAXEO  US. 


273 


seen  in  the  anchor  walls  at  the  gateway   {Fig. 
479). 

Three  things  are  necessary  to  a  good  fence — • 
strength,  elasticity  and  light  weight.  By  using 
barbed  wire  one  gets  the  very  great  advantage 
of  the  cable  in  stretching  as  well  as  extra 
strength,  while  by  using  but  four  wires  one  cer- 
tainly secures  a  fence  of  light  weight.  The  barb 
itself  on  a  tight  wire  is  a  harmless  but  effective 
warning  to  cattle  and  horses  to  let  the  fence 
alone.  Barbed  wire,  used  after  this  plan  of  not 
stapling  it  to  the  post,  is  elastic  enough  to  with- 
stand any  ordinary  shock,  such  as  a  falling  tree, 
because  the  force  of  the  impact  is  distributed 
along  the  entire  line  of  fence  between  the  end 
anchor-walls. 

A  gate  is  always  a  source  of  weakness  to  aj 
fence  and  a  cause  of  care  to  the  farm  owner. 
The  stone  posts  to  which  the  gate  is  hung  {Fig. 
479)  are  2'  6"  square.  The  hinges  as  well  as 
the  latch  piece  were  set  in  the  cement  as  the 
posts  were  being  built. 

;Mrs.  Meredith  says :  "We  are  greatly  indebted 
to  the  pure  breeds  for  animals  with  little  of  the 
scrub  propensity  for  jumping  fences,  conse- 
quently a  fence  4'  2"  high  is  ample  safeguard 
for  the  stock  usually  kept  on  a  farm.  I  have 
.  used  a  fence  of  the  style  here  described  for  more 
than  twenty  years  and  with  entire  satisfaction. 
We  seem  not  yet  to  have  learned  how  to  build 
farm  fences.  A  ride  through  any  section  of  the 
country  reveals  a  succession  of  poor  fences  con- 
structed after  the  vagaries  of  each  particular 
owner.  Hardly  ever  does  one  find  a  fence  that 
stands  plumb.  With  plank  fences  the  great 
weight  inevitably  forces  them  to  lean;  with 
woven  wire  fences,  in  many  cases,  the  wire  used 
is  so  light  and  so  poorly  galvanized  that  in  a 
short  time  it  yields  to  the  rubbing  of  stock  and 


turn  hogs  as  well  as  horses,  but  it  is  a  luxury 
of  the  past,  too  expensive  for  modern  farm 
economy. ' ' 

A    COXVEXIEXT    PORTABLE    FENCE. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  have  a  fence  that  may 
be  quickly  erected  and  as  quickly  removed.  The 
fence  shown  in  Fig.  482  is  very  cheap,  strong 
and  convenient.  It  is  built  of  pine,  1"  x  6"  for 
the  bottom  rail  and  l"x4"  for  the  top  rails. 
The  braces  that  hold  it  upright  are  2"x4" 
and  the  base  or  cross  piece  is  2"  x  6".  The  base 
is  notched  2"  and  the  bottom  boards  notched  as 


FIG.     482.       COXVENIENT    PORTABLE    FENCE. 


< 

--  12 

-  ^ 

L 

o 

0 

o 
o 

o 

o 

o 

o 
o 

i; 

1  X  6  " 

o 

<■ 

V 

^ 

o 

1 

1x6-; 

1 

L 

V 

o 

Ji 

FIG.    481.       PORTABLE    HOG    AND    SHEEP    FENCE. 


shows  holes  or  else  is  borne  to  the  ground.  The 
usual  barbed-wire  fence  seems  to  inspire  in  its 
owner  a  disinclination  to  replace  a  staple  or 
mend  a  broken  wire.  The  very  best  fence  ever 
constructed  was  an  old-time  split  rail  Virginia 
worm  fence;  it  would  stand  plumb  and  would 


much,  which  makes  a  secure  lock.  This  fence 
is  easily  made  and  is  erected  when  needed  as 
fast  as  the  panels  and  braces  can  be  taken  from 
the  wagon.  As  the  base  piece  of  the  brace  is 
apt  to  decay  first  it  might  well  be  made  of  oak 
and  if  set  on  two  bricks  or  small  flat  stones  it 


274 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


would '  be  less  affected  by  moisture  of  the  soil. 
These  panels  must  not  be  too  long  or  they  will, 
warp  out  of  shape,  12'  being  long  enough.  Pine 
is  better  than  oak  because  of  the  warping  ten- 
dency of  most  hard  woods. 

PORTABLE   HOG   AND    SHEEP   FENCING 

The  cut  (Fig.  481)  shows  a  good  type  of  a 
portable  hog  and  sheep  fence.  It  should  be  built 
of  good  material  that  will  not  warp  nor  rot 
readily.  Put  together  with  long  wire  nails, 
clinched,  painted  or  treated  with  a  wood  pre- 
servative it  will  endure  for  years  and  form  a 
ready  means  of  enclosing  a  patch  of  rape  or 
clover  pasture. 

ANOTHER  GOOD  PORTABLE   HOG   AND   SHEEP   FENCE. 

The  panels  in  the  portable  hog  fence  shown 
in  Fig.  483  are  made  of  4"  fencing,  14'  long, 
with  6"  spaces  between  the  boards — thus  mak- 
ing a  fence  3'  high  by  allowing  the  cleats  to 
project  2".  If  the  fence  is  to  be  used  for  pigs 
the  lower  space  may  be  reduced  to  4"  and  the 


FIG.     483.       PORTABLE     HOG     AND     SHEEP     FENCE. 

upper  one  increased  to  8".  This  makes  a  better 
division  for  all  purposes.  The  fence  is  held  in 
place  by  triangular  frames,  as  indicated  in  the 
drawing.  The  ends  of  the  panels  overlap  about 
6"  and  fit  into  notches  for  the  top  and  bottom 
boards.  The  brace  should  be  on  the  outside  of 
the  lot.  This  style  of  fence  is  very  satisfactory 
for  sheep  and  will  serve  the  purpose  of  a  tem- 
porary fence  for  hogs,  though  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  stake  it  at  the  braces. 

Another  portable  fence  (see  Fig.  484)  is  thus 
described : 

The  panels  are  made  of  6"  pine  fencing  12' 


long  with  4"  and  5"  spaces  between  the  boards, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  This  makes  a 
fence  4'  high.  The  planks  are  nailed  at  each 
end  to  a  2"  x  4"  scantling  4'  long,  which  has  two 
holes  1"  in  diameter  for  the  purpose  of  putting 
the  fence  together,  with  a  brace  between  the 
panels,  as  shown.  In  the  center  of  each  panel 
is  a  brace  made  of  4"  fencing.  The  main  braces 
are  made  of  the  same ;  they  are  6'  long ;  the  top 
brace  is  bolted  to  the  other  at  the  ground.  The 
extra  holes  in  the  upper  brace  are  to  regulate 
the  position  of  the  fence  on  a  hillside.  The 
braces  may  be  put  on  either  side;  they  are  usu- 
ally put  both  ways.  Iron  pins  18"  long,  with 
an  "f "  hook  at  one  end,  are  used  by  driving  into 
the  ground  with  the  hook  over  the  brace.  Wood- 
en pins  are  used  to  hold  the  fence  together,  run- 
ning through  the  braces. 

HURDLES  FOR  SHEEP. 

Fig.  485  shows  hurdle  made  of  four  4"  strips 
about  12'  or  14'  in  length  with  upright  strips 
of  the  same  material  well  nailed  and  clinched. 
Eight-inch  spaces  between  the  strips  and  two- 


.14'. 


rA. 


FIG.     485.       HURDLE     FOR     SHEEP. 

inch  projection  of  the  uprights  give  a  hurdle 
42"  high  when  set  up. 

Fig.  486  is  a  short-hinged  hurdle  that  gives 
satisfaction  in  making  small  pens  in  the  barn. 
These  are  four  or  five  feet  long,  and  joined  to- 
gether at  the  ends  with  strong  hinges.  These 
can  be  set  up  in  a  corner  of  shed  or  barn  half 


---5'- 


5- 


-> 


"^^ ^S3 

^ 7^ 

^ 

\^ 

^ 

■-"V/ 

^ 

■ • .           ••' 

// 

^ 

:■;                          -=cs 

ir^                           :--i 

FIG.      484.       ANOTHER     PORTABLE     FENCE. 


^1 


HINGED  HURDLES 

FIG.    486.       HINGED    HURDLES. 

open,  thus  forming  a  pen  4'  x  4'  or  5'  x  5'  as 
the  case  may  be.  (See  Fig.  487.)  Another 
pair  makes  a  second  pen  and  so  on.  These  are 
very  handy  at  lambing  time. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


275 


HINGED 


FIG.    487.       HINGED    HURDLES. 


ENGLISH    HURDLES   FOR    SHEEP. 

English  hurdles  for  sheep  are  made  so  light 
that  the  shepherd  can  move  them  on  his  back. 
The  drawing  (Fig.  488)  is  of  a  good  hurdle 
made  of  hardwood  li/^"  x  2"  4'  long;  sharpen 
one  end ;  band  the  other  end  with  a  strip  of 
hoop  iron  so  it  cannot  split,  or  wrap  it  a  few 
turns  tight  with  No.  12  wire ;  put  on  four  bars 
of  light  straight  wood,  pine  is  best;  these  bars 


wet  does  not  aifect  it.  It  is  not  generally  de- 
sirable, however,  to  have  a  brace  extending  out 
beyond  the  end  of  the  fence.  When  it  is  not 
desirable  to  have  such  a  brace  the  difficulty  is 
obviated  by  the  brace  shown  in  Fig.  490.    Take 


/l.i>S     I'u'-  10'  ).- J- 

FIG.     488.       ENGLISH     HURDLES     FOR    SHEEP. 


are  1"  x  3"  and  10'  long.  There  must  be  a  bar 
to  make  holes  in  the  ground  for  inserting  the 
posts,  which  then  get  a  tap  or  two  with  the 
sledge  to  make  them  solid.  A  metal  band  slips 
over  and  holds  the  tops  together.  Heavy  wire 
will  serve  or  light  wire  for  that  matter. 

BRACING  A  WIRE  FENCE. 

The  general  principle  of  bracing  a  wire  fence 
is  shown  in  Fig.  489.  This  brace  is  a  rod  of 
%"  iron,  nutted  and  threaded  at  each  end, 
passing  through  a  3'  length  of  6"  x  6"  stuff.  If 
the  iron  rod  is  not  at  hand  a  cable  of  six  twisted 
wires  may  be  used.  This  brace  is  cheap — will 
hold  the  post  down  instead  of  pulling  or  push- 
ing it  up.     It  also  is  immovable  and  frost  or 


FIG.     489.       BRACING    A    WIRE    FENCE. 

half  of  this  illustration,  which  shows  a  gate- 
way in  the  line  of  fence,  make  the  end  of  the 
wire  cable,  C,  or  rod,  as  the  case  may  be,  and 
make  it  fast  to  the  "dead-man,"  D;  this  gives 
an  end  that  will  allow  any  strain  without  get- 
ting out  of  plumb  or  moving  the  post  in  the 


• 

>    .\         ,   .,   ,     * 

1 

n 

\^ 

• 

FIG.     490.       BRACING    A    WIRE    FENCE. 

least.  If  a  wire  cable  is  used  at  C  it  is  well 
to  make  it  large  and  tightly  twisted  and  short 
enough   to   make   the   posts   B   incline  towards 


276 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


one  another  at  the  top  a  very  little  before  the 
wire  is  strained,  so  that  when  all  the  slack  is 
out  they  will  be  perpendicular.  "With  an  iron 
rod  nutted  at  the  upper  end  this  is  not  neces- 
sary, for  any  obliquity  can  be  remedied  by  a 
few  turns  with  the  wrench.  "When  a  gateway 
in  the  line  of  fence  is  required  the  plan  shown 
in  Fig.  490  has  been  found  very  satisfactory.: 
The  cable  or  rod  passes  under  the  block  P,, 
which  should  be  a  good  durable  stick  of  oak, 
6"  X  6"  and  about  4'  long.  The  fence  will  not 
lift  it. 

Fig.  491  illustrates  the  bracing  of  a  post  when 
it  is  desired  that  no  brace  should  appear  to  view, 


FIG.     491.       BRACING     A    WIRE     FENCE. 

as  in  the  case  of  a  lawn  or  yard  fence.  C  is  a 
rod  of  %"  iron  passing  through  the  lower  end 
of  the  post  and  the  end  of  the  brace,  B.  There 
is  also  a  block  of  2"  x  6"  on  the  front  of  the 
end  of  the  post  to  keep  it  from  moving  forward 
or  lifting  up.  The  short  post  is  not  fastened 
to  the  brace,  which  merely  rests  on  it.  Braced 
in  this  manner  the  post  will  remain  perpendicu- 
lar unless  strain  is  brought  on  it  sufficient  to 
bend  it.  It  should  be  of  8"  x  6"  stuff.  The 
brace  B  should  be  of  6"  x  6"  stuff  and  about  6' 
long. 

A  GOOD  CHEAP  FENCE. 

L.  N.  Bonham,  of  Butler  County,  0.,  a  few 
years  ago  contriWted  the  subjoined  article  to 
The  Breeder's  Gazette:  I  have  completed 
110  rods  of  wire  fence  that  has  every  appearance 
of  giving  good  service.  We  have  in  the  town- 
ship more  than  40  varieties  of  wire  and  wood 
fences,  but  few  of  them  combine  cheapness  and 
efficiency  enough  to  commend  them.  The  farm 
was  originally  refenced  with  good  locust  posts 
and  the  best  pine  fencing  for  the  majority  of 
road  and  field  fences.  I  used  the  old  fence  ma- 
terial found  on  the  farm  for  slat  fences,  which 
have  done  good  service,  as  some  of  them  are  good 
yet  and  will  last  several  years  longer. 

I  have  always  claimed  that  the  well-made 
fence  is  the  most  economical.  The  wire  fence 
I  describe  replaces  a  division  fence  that  was 
built  from  the  second  grade  of  lumber  and  posts. 


I  bought  lumber  and  posts  by  the  carload,  and 
as  I  hauled  the  lumber  and  posts  to  the  farm  I 
sorted  each  into  three  grades.  This  was  on  the 
theory  that  a  fence,  like  a  chain,  is  no  stronger 
than  its  weakest  link. 

It  does  not  pay  to  put  sappy  or  cross-knotted 
boards  into  the  same  panel  with  strong,  sound 
lumber.  The  lines  of  fence  built  with  the  three 
different  grades  of  posts  and  boards  are  lasting 
in  proportion  to  the  quality  of  material  used. 
The  fence  made  of  third-grade  boards  and  posts 
had  to  be  repaired  several  years  ago  and  was 
later  removed.  I  am  now  replacing  division 
fences.  I  hope  the  wire  fence  will  last  as  long 
as  did  my  third-grade  pine  and  locust  fence. 
The  posts  I  have  used  in  the  wire  fence  are 
made  from  old  locust  trees  which  the  borers 
had  damaged,  so  the  posts  are  not  first  class  and 
would  not  do  for  a  board  fence,  even  if  I  could 
get  as  good  fencing  as  I  purchased  25  years  ago. 

The  new  fence  has  a  post  every  rod  set  36"  in 
the  ground.  There  are  10  strands  of  No.  10 
galvanized  wire,  each  double  and  twisted  into  a 
cable  as  the  fence  is  made.  For  stays  between 
the  posts  I  have  a  crimped  No.  9  wire  that  is 
put  in  every  15"  as  the  weaving  progresses,  and 
these  stays  are  gripped  by  the  cable  so  firmly 
that  neither  cables  nor  stays  can  be  displaced 
without  force  enough  to  break  one  or  both.  The 
fence  is  hog-tight  and  bull  strong.  In  the  line 
of  110  rods  I  have  three  anchor  posts  9'  long 
(butt  cuts  of  whiteoak)  squared  to  12"  above 
ground.  They  are  set  5'  in  the  ground  and 
braced  and  anchored  as  shown  in  Fig.  492.    A 


.-   / 


FIG.     4  92.       BRACING    A    POST. 

is  an  oak  timber  buried  horizontally  3'  under 
ground  and  at  right  angles  with  the  fence. 
Around  the  middle  of  this  "dead  man"  are  four 
strands  of  No.  9  galvanized  wire  E  that  pass 
around  the  anchor  post  B  and  are  twisted  into 
a  cable.  Another  cable  of  the  same  size  and 
material  passes  around  anchor  post  B  near  the 
ground  and  post  C  near  the  top.  After  the 
brace  is  put  in  place  this  cable  is  twisted  tight 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


277' 


enough  to  hold  the  second  post  firmly  against 
it.  Each  end  of  the  line  of  fence  has  the  same 
arrangement  of  anchor  posts,  braces  and  cables, 
and  in  the  middle  of  the  line  (55  rods  from 
each  end)  is  another  anchor  post  similarly 
braced,  except  the  cable  is  attached  to  an  extra 
strong  fence  post  instead  of  a  "  dead  man. ' ' 

The  anchor  posts  are  painted  with  oil  and 
mineral  paint  and  the  tops  covered  with  tin 
painted  on  both  sides.  The  wires  pass  through 
the  center  of  the  anchor  posts  to  ratchets.  I 
think  the  twisted  strands  of  wire  will  be  less 
affected  by  changes  of  temperature  than  plain 
wire.  I  had  the  fence  built  in  hot  weather  in 
preference  to  freezing  or  cold  weather,  as  my 
experience  is  that  wire  and  slat  or  paling  fences 
keep  in  place  better  when  put  together  in  dry, 
hot  weather  than  when  built  early  in  the  spring 
or  late  in  the  fall. 

I  see  many  failures  in  wire  fences  from  lack 
of  well-constructed  anchor  posts  and  stays  and 
from  placing  the  posts  too  far  apart  and  not 
deep  enough.  The  most  common  form  of  brac- 
ing is  to  set  one  end  of  the  brace  near  the  top 
of  the  anchor  post  and  at  the  foot  of  the  next 
post  in  the  line,  and  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to 
see  the  anchor  post  rise  enough  during  the  first 
winter  to  ruin  the  fence.  I  can  no  longer  af- 
ford board  fences.  Wire  fences  have  many  ob- 
jections, but  their  cheapness,  neatness  as  well  as 
ease  of  construction  and  keeping  clean  commend 
them.  Before  setting  this  fence  1  plowed  a  head- 
land 10'  wide,  harrowed  it  well  and  sowed  grass 
and  clover  seed.  Such  a  feneerow  is  free  from 
weeds,  furnishes  good  pasture  and  gives  in- 
creased height  and  better  drainage  to  the  fence. 

PRESERVING  POSTS. 

Tarring  or  painting  the  outside  of  a  fence  post 
that  is  full  of  sap  may  keep  surface  water  out 
of  the  post,  but  that  assumes  that  the  foreign 
water  is  the  caus'e  of  decay.  It  is  doubtless  one 
cause,  but  the  sap  and  insects  that  enter  for  the 
sap  are  another  means  of  destruction  of  posts. 
To  prevent  injury  by  the  sap  and  insects  the 
creosoting  of  timber  was  invented.  Saturating 
timber  with  creosote  coagulates  the  albumen  and 
excludes  the  air  and  acts  as  a  preventive  of  in- 
sects, ferments  or  fungi.  To  make  the  creosote 
most  effective  the  timber  is  put  into  a  bath  of 
superheated  steam  and  then  treated  with  creosote. 
The  process  is  only  partially  effective.  While  it 
prevents  largely  the  injury  from  fungi  and  in- 
sects the  timber  is  made  brittle  and  in  some 
varieties  of  wood  this  brittleness  is  so  extreme 
as  to  lessen  its  value  in  the  ratio  of  lessened 
strength.  The  process  costs  about  15  cents  per 
railroad  tie  or  half  that  for  a  fence  post. 


A  well-seasoned  post  might  be  benefited  by 
soaking  in  tar  if  the  seasoning  has  been  thorough 
enough  to  dry  out  the  sap.  Tarring  tends  to 
exclude  moisture  and  to  prevent  insect  attacks, 
but  among  the  many  devices  for  preserving  tim- 
ber the  use  of  creosote  or  corrosive  sublimate, 
the  latter  process  called  kyanizing,  seems  to  give 
most  satisfactory  results.  Their  value  is  based 
on  their  action  on  the  albumen,  as  that  is  the 
element  in  vegetable  bodies  that  soonest  decays 
or  starts  ferment. 

CONSUMPTION   OF   WOODEN   FENCE   POSTS. 

The  annual  production  of  fence  posts  in  the 
regular  logging  camps  of  the  country  is  8.715,- 
661.  It  has  been  estimated  that  upwards  of 
1,000,000,000  posts  are  set  each  year.  Timber 
of  the  required  quality  is  produced  in  the  ]\Iid- 
dle  West  by  hardy  catalpa,  black  locust  and 
Osage  orange. 

Catalpa  makes  an  excellent  growth  on  deep, 
porous,  fertile  soil,  but  only  on  such  soil.  Five 
or  6"  posts  should  be  ready  to  cut  in  about 
10  years.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  locust 
should  produce  fence  material  in  15  years. 

Osage  orange  is  being  extensively  planted  for 
hedges  and  windbreaks,  from  which  a  consider- 
able yield  of  fence  posts  may  be  obtained.  It 
makes  satisfactory  growth  on  dry  soils  and 
reaches  post  size  in  from  15  to  20  years. 

Several  other  species,  such  as  white  willow, 
European  larch,  Russian  mulberry  and  red  cedar 
are  also  being  grown  with  good  results,  but  non^ 
of  them  is  better  fitted  to  supply  fence  posts 
than  those  first  named. 

FARM  GATES. 

Every  fence  must  have  its  gate.  Where  gates 
are  opened  and  shut  several  times  every  day  it 
is  very  important  that  the  gate  move  easily  and 
quickly.  There  are  two  gates  that  are  in  com- 
mon use.  The  first  is  the  common  board  gate 
which  slides  part  way  open  on  two  wooden  pegs 
before  it  swings.  The  second  is  the  hinge  gate. 
The  first  has  the  advantage  of  being  easier  on 
the  posts.  There  is  also  an  iron  gate  manufac- 
tured on  the  same  principles,  but  instead  of 
sliding  it  is  provided  with  rollers.  The  hinge 
gate  is  quickly  and  easily  swung.  The  greatest 
trouble  is  in  keeping  the  gate  posts  in  position 
so  that  the  end  of  the  gate  will  not  drag.  If 
the  ground  is  not  firm  the  post  hole  should  be 
tamped  full  of  small  rocks  against  the  back  side 
of  the  post  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  and  another 
at  the  top  of  the  front  side. 

A  still  better  way  is  to  set  a  permanent  gate 
post  in  cement.     Gates  are  sometimes  hung  so 


278 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


that  the  top  hinge  is  set  back  about  2"  so  as 
to  raise  the  gate  as  it  swings  open.  If  the 
swinging  end  of  the  gate  is  set  on  a  block  when 
the  gate  is  open  or  shut,  the  strain  on  the  gate 
post  will  be  greatly  relieved.  The  board  gate 
of  course  is  the  cheapest. 

Of  the  iron  gates  the  prices  on  14'  gates  are 
from  $8  to  $9,  according  to  height.  There  are 
several  forms  of  patent  opening  gates  on  the 
market  costing  more.  Some  of  them  are  quite 
satisfactory,  though  none  of  them  meets  all  the 
requirements. 

Fig.  493  illustrates  a  gate  that  is  horse-high, 
bull-strong  and  pig-tight,  besides  being  light  and 


f LAm^tt)  SURFACE  OF  L06^J)|p^aTl?i  UNDERNEA#GATE 

FIG.      493.       PRACTICAL     FARM      GATE. 

easily  opened  and  closed.  It  swings  both  ways, 
hangs  on  common  iron  hinges  and  an  iron  cal)le 
fastened  from  the  outermost  end  to  the  swing- 
ing post.  This  cable  may  be  tightened  as  the 
gate  sags  by  means  of  a  turn  buckle.  When  the 
gate  is  closed  it  stands  2"  above  a  sill;  the  sill 
is  made  by  imbedding  a  log,  flattened  on  the 
upper-side,  directly  underneath  the  gate.  The 
imbedded  log  is  not  level  with  the  surrounding 
ground  but   is   raised   several   inches   and  the 


ground  leveled  off  to  a  gentle  slope  so  as  to  make 
the  approach  to  the  sill  gradual.  This  makes 
the  gate  swing  more  than  half  a  foot  above  the 
ground  when  opening  or  closing  and  it  can 
clearly  be  seen  that  this  would  help  considerably 
to  make  easy  the  use  of  the  gate  during  heavy 
snows.  The  latch  is  simply  a  sliding  4"  stick 
with  notches  cut  in  it  so  as  to  keep  the  latch 
in  place  when  open  or  closed. 

Fig.  494  shows  a  farm  gate  that  is  hung  to 
swing  clear  in  and  out  and  is  constructed  of  the 
best  yellow  pine  or  hardwood.  The  advantage 
claimed  for  it  is  that  it  swings  clear  either  in  or 
out,  is  easily  opened  by  one  on  horseback  from 
either  side,  is  self-fastening  and  does  not  sag. 

The  materials  necessary  in  construction  include 
one  post  8"  x  8"  and  15'  long;  one  post  6"  x  6" 
and  8'  long,  one  piece  4"  x  4"  and  10'  long, 
main  standard;  seven  pieces  1"  x  4"  and  14' 
long,  horizontal  strips;  two  pieces  1"  x  3" 
and  17'  long,  braces;  two  pieces  1"  x  4"  and  6' 
long,  end  standards;  one  piece  1"  x  3"  and  4' 
long,  latch;  one  piece  1"  x  2"  and  3i^'  long, 
handle  bar ;  one  piece  of  I/2"  galvanized  rod  3' 
long;  three  pounds  10-penny  wire  nails  and  20' 
of  wire  for  another  brace. 

The  latch  is  hung  with  No.  24  copper  wire, 
swings  clear  and  has  no  friction.  The  lower 
end  of  the  handle  bar  passes  through  a  staple 
4"  wide  driven  through  the  latch.  The  catch 
is  made  of  2"x3"  hardwood  8"  long  and  is 
gained  in  flush  on  post.  The  gate  rests  on  a 
6"  X  6"  block  set  2'  in  the  ground.  Fit  the 
thimble  skein  over  the  top  of  the  main  standard, 
bend  %"  rod  as  shown  and  staple  to  the  post. 
In  the  bottom  of  the  standard  insert  an  iron 
pin  4"  long  to  fit  in  a  hole  in  the  bottom  block. 


FIG.    494.       GATE    HUNG    TO    SWING    CLEAR. 


A  gate  that  gives  general  satisfaction  is  con- 
structed as  follows:  Set  two  posts  20'  apart, 
take  a  piece  of  strong  timber  20'  long,  mortise 
and  tenon  down  on  top  of  the  posts  and  bore  a 
2"  hole  in  the  center  of  the  cross-piece.  The 
gate  posts  should  be  high  enough  to  allow  a  load 
of  hay  to  pass  under  this  cross-piece  without 
the  latter  dragging  off  the  driver;  take  two 
pieces  of  iron  2'  or  3'  long  (an  old  wagon  tire 
will  do),  drill  three  holes  in  each  piece  large 
enough  to  receive  a  %"  bolt,  hammer  one  end 
of  one  piece  round  to  go  through  the  2"  hole 
in  the  cross-piece  overhead  and  hammer  one  end 
of  the  other  piece  of  iron  to  an  abrupt  bevel  to 
fit  into  an  iron  socket  near  the  ground,  which 
is  the  axis  or  pivot  upon  which  the  gate  is  to 
turn.  Take  two  2"  x  4"  scantling,  bore  three 
holes  in  the  irons,  put  the  irons  between  the 
holes  in   each  end  of  each   one  to   match  the 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


279 


scantling  and  bolt  securely;  leave  enough  of 
the  iron  projecting  to  go  through  the  hole  in  the 
cross-piece,  as  shown  in  Fig.  496,  and  enough 
projecting  at  the  other  end  to  go  into  the  socket 
near  the  ground.  We  now  have  up  the  two  gate 
posts,  the  cross-girder  and  upright  pivotal  piece 


FIG.     495.       NEW     TYPE     OF    GATE. 

upon  which  the  gate  is  to  turn.  {Fig.  495.) 
The  gate  may  be  built  to  suit  one's  personal 
taste.  When  completed  there  are  two  gates  or 
two  driveways  10'  wide  when  the  gate  is  open, 
so  that  two  teams  may  pass  through  the  gate 
at  the  same  time. 

Fig.  496  shows  the  gate  closed.  In  the  frame- 
work 2"  X  4"s  are  used  and  the  upright  or 
picket  pieces  are  1"  x  4";  the  latch  is  3'  long 


FIG.     496.       NEW    TYPE    OF    GATE     (CLOSED). 

made  of  an  old  buggy  tire  fastened  to  the  gate 
at  the  distal  end  with  a  loose  bolt,  having  a 
hole  in  it  6"  from  the  end  next  to  the  gate  post ; 
one  end  of  a  small  rope  is  passed  through  the 


hole  in  the  latch  and  the  other  end  of  the  rope 
through  a  hole  in  the  lower  end  of  the  lever  and 
a  latch  receiver  on  each  post  beveled  on  both 
sides  makes  it  a  self-latcher  when  the  gate  is 
opened  from  either  side  or  turned  round  and 
round  either  way;  it  will  latch  every  time  the 
latch  comes  to  either  post.  One  can  ride  up  to 
the  gate,  pull  down  the  lever,  push  the  gate  open, 
ride  through,  swing  his  horse  half  round  and 
close  the  gate  behind  or  push  it  forward  until 
the  latch  catches  in  the  receiver  at  the  opposite 
post. 

The  post  for  a  farm  gate  is  an  all-important 
thing.  A  good,  strong,  immovable  post  helps 
to  keep  the  gate  in  shape.  Where  practicable, 
permanent  posts  of  cement  are  recommended, 
with  3'  below  the  surface.  As  to  the  gate  shown 
in  Fig.  497,  an  iron  runs  through  the  post  6" 
from  the  ground  and  another  4'  above  this. 
These  rods  project  far  enough  from  the  posts 


FIG.    497.       POSTS    FOR    A   GATE. 

with  bolt  holes  through  the  ends  to  form  butts 
for  hinges  on  one  side  and  on  the  other  to  screw 
on  a  piece  of  timber,  to  which  the  fence  is  at- 
tached. This  gives  a  permanent  and  immovable 
post,  both  for  gate  and  fence.  The  posts  have 
square  sockets  in  the  upper  end,  in  which  can 
be  inserted  wooden  posts  to  construct  an  arch 
over  the  gate  if  so  desired.  The  posts  are  not 
less  than  15'  apart  on  the  inside  and  are  con- 
nected by  a  beam  overhead  8'  from  the  ground. 
The  gate  is  not  less  than  15'  wide,  and,  in- 
stead of  being  hung  on  hinges  in  the  ordinary 
way,  it  revolves  on  a  center  post.  This  gives 
two  spaces  7I/2'  wide  when  the  gate  is  open, 
amply  wide  for  all  ordinary  farm  purposes.  The 
gate  being  light  can  easily  be  lifted  out  of  its 
holdings  for  heavy  machinery  and  wagons  of 
hay  to  pass.  The  upper  beam  can  also  be  re- 
moved for  the  higher  loads.  The  gate  itself  is 
thus  constructed:  Four  slats  16'  long,  1"  thick 
and  4"  wide;  two  pieces  of  scantling  4'  long, 
4'  wide  and  2"  thick.  For  a  15'  gate  saw  one 
foot  off  two  of  the  slats  and  bolt  them  on  the 
ends  of  the  scantling  with  4"  bolts  running 
down  into  the  stile.  The  other  two  slats  are 
used  as  bent  braces  in  such  a  way  as  to  form 
two  arches  bolted  together  in  the  middle. 
Weave  the  wire  of  No.  9  and  No.  15  and  while  it 
is  still  tight  nail  it  fast  to  the  framework.  This 
makes  a  light,  strong  gate  through  which  no 


280 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


pig  can  squeeze  and  which  will  defy  larger 
stock. 

The  framework  is  made  fast  to  the  revolv- 
ing post  with  three  bolts  with  hooked  ends. 
These  are  put  under  the  top  and  bottom  slats 
and  the  center  of  the  brace  boards,  going  en- 
tirely through  the  revolving  post.  This  post 
has  an  iron  spur  at  each  end  and  a  good  ring 
fitted  over  the  end  to  keep  it  from  splitting  out. 
The  bottom  spur  is  V^"  long  and  the  top  one 
3".  The  bottom  revolves  on  a  cedar  or  locust 
post  in  the  ground  flush  with  the  surface,  and 
the  top  one  in  a  hole  in  the  cross-beam.  The 
top  one  is  long  enough  to  allow  the  bottom  to  be 
lifted  out  of  socket  when  necessary.  The  weight 
of  the  gate  will  keep  it  in  place. 

To  keep  the  gate  from  sagging  put  wooden 
braces  from  each  end  up  to  the  center  post  or 
twist  in  a  doubled  No.  9  wire,  which  perhaps  is 
better.  In  this  way  are  secured  two  short, 
strong  gates  in  one  that  cannot  possibly  sag. 
There  are  no  hinges  to  be  getting  out  of  order. 
T^se  lag  bolts  freely  of  various  sizes.  When  used 
for  spurs  to  the  revolving  post,  screw  them  up 
as  close  as  required  and  then  cut  off  the  heads. 
This  gives  a  good  tight  pin. 

The  gate  can  be  constructed  at  a  moderate 
cost  for  materials.  It  can  be  built  by  anyone 
who  is  handy  with  tools  for  a  very  small  amount. 
"When  the  gate  is  put  in  place  it  looks  neat  and 
gives  satisfaction. 


The  gate  illustrated  in  Fig.   498  is  5'  high 
and   11'   wide.      It   requires    eight    16'    boards. 


K 


/\         5  FT  HIGH 


^ 


r 


-«l  FT  WIDE- 


FIG.    498.       A    POPULAR    FARM    GATE. 

Hard  pine,  dressed  on  two  sides  and  5"  Avide 
has  given  satisfaction.  A  child  can  open  and 
close  it.  Properly  put  up  and  with  posts  braced 
there  is  no  sag  or  twisting  out  of  shape.  One 
of  these  gates  made  from  rough  pine  fencing 
has  been  swinging  about  20  years  and  is  still 
good,  and  has  been  opened  and  closed  as  often 
as  20  times  daily. 


The  latch  is  placed  in  the  gate  between  the 
brace  boards,  which  are  double,  one  on  each  side 
of  gate,  as  also  are  the  end  and  center  pieces. 
Use  two  bolts  in  each  board  as  shown  in  the  cut. 
It  holds  the  gate  in  place  better  than  when  one 
bolt  is  used.  Forty-eight  31/2"  x  %"  bolts  are 
required.  The  cost  is  about  $8  for  painting, 
building  and  lumber. 


The  type  of  gate  shown  in  Fig.  499  for  pas- 
tures and  fields  may  be  12'  to  14'  by  4i/^'  high. 


FIG.    499.       AN    INEXPENSIVE    TYPE    OF    GATE. 

Make  a  frame  of  five  pieces,  two  2"  x  4"  and 
one  2"  X  6",  as  shown  in  illustration.  Cut  as 
many  pieces  of  No.  9  wire  as  are  desired  about 
2'  longer  than  twice  the  length  of  the  gate ;  fas- 
ten the  ends  of  the  wire  to  2"  x  6"  after  passing 
around  the  out  end.  Creases  should  be  cut  in 
the  2"  X  4"  and  2"  x  6"  pieces  just  deep  enough 
to  imbed  the  wire.  The  wires  being  in  place, 
nail  two  1"  x  12"  pieces  51/2'  long,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  2"  x  6"  end  piece,  forming  a  strong 
gate  head  to  which  to  attach  hinges;  the  18" 
extending  above  the  top  of  the  gate,  receiving 
one  end  of  the  brace  or  supporting  wire,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  499,  makes  the  support  more  effectual. 
Over  the  2"  x  4"s  at  the  opposite  end  nail  a 
1"  X  6".  Next  twist  the  wires  evenly  until  all 
are  drawn  tight,  but  not  too  tight,  else  they  will 
warp  the  frame. 

To  prevent  stock  from  rubbing  against  the 
gate  some  farmers  use  barbed  wire  in  place  of 
No.  9  smooth  just  above  the  center  and  some- 
times put  on  cross  wires,  doubling  them  and 
twisting  between  the  horizontal  wires,  thus  hold- 
ing the  latter  in  place  and  preventing  pigs  from 
squeezing  through.  The  number  of  horizontal 
wires  used  will  depend  on  the  kind  of  stock 
fenced  against.  The  brace  or  supporting  wire 
is  last  put  on  and  should  be  twisted  till  it  holds 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


281 


the  outer  end  of  gate  at  its  proper  position.  If 
the  gate  sags  at  anj"  time  one  or  two  twists  will 
bring  it  up.  This  is  a  strong,  neat  gate  tliat 
anyone  can  make,  and  if  the  parts  of  the  wood 
that  will  not  be  accessible  after  the  gate,  is  fin- 
ished are  well  painted  or  coated  with  hot  tar 
before  putting  together  and  all  exposed  parts 
kept  well  painted  afterward  it  will  be  a  gate 
for  a  lifetime. 


The  drawing  (Fig.  500)  shows  a  farm  gate 
101/2'  long  and  5'  high.  The  material  used  may- 
be i"  X  4"  hard  pine  or  oak,  dressed  on  both 
sides.  Paint  the  pieces  before  putting  the  gate 
together.  Use  five  upright  pieces,  two  at  each 
end  and  one  in  the  middle.     On  the  side  with 


FIG.     500.       A    PLANK    FARM    GATE. 

the  middle  pieces  use  two  short  braces  and  on 
the  other  side  a  long  brace.  If  this  is  done  the 
gate  will  never  sag.  Use  as  many  boards  in 
this  gate  as  desired.  The  fewer  boards  the 
lighter  the  gate  will  be  and  the  less  the  wind 
will  catch  it.  Use  No.  9  wire.  Wrap  each  end 
around  the  head  of  the  gate,  running  it  back  to 
the  heel,  where  it  is  cut  off  and  fastened  to  a 
%"  bolt,  which  has  had  the  head  part  bent  into 
the  shape  of  a  hook  B  in  the  illustration.  Run 
the  bolt  through  the  two  upright  pieces  at  the 
heel  of  the  gate.  Tightening  up  the  nuts  on 
the  bolts  will  stretch  the  wires.  Staple  each 
wire  to  each  piece  of  wood  that  it  crosses.  Do 
not  drive  the  staples  in  tight. 

The  most  important  thing  is  the  hanging  of 
the  gate.  ]\Iany  farmers  contend  that  all  gates 
should  be  made  to  open  both  ways.  This  will 
save  many  runaways  besides  being  much  more 
convenient.  Use  strap  and  screw  hinges.  When 
boring  holes  in  the  gate  post  for  the  screws 
begin  on  the  corner  of  the  post  and  bore  toward 
the  opposite  corner.  Fasten  the  hinges  on  the 
side  of  the  gate  that  will  permit  of  its  opening 
both  wavs. 


pass  beneath  it  and  restrain  cattle  or  horses  is 
indicated  in  the  drawing. 

This  gate  may  be  made  of  light,  stiff  ma- 
terial, good  pine  being  commonly  employed. 
Tlie  planks  may  be  I14"  x  4",  and  any  length 
up  to  12'.     It  is  all  put  together  with*%"  car- 


FIG.    501.       ADJUSTABLE    FARM    GATE. 

riage  bolts.  Fig.  501  shows  the  gate  with  holes 
bored  and  half  the  upright  pieces  in  place.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  braces  A  B  are  bolted 
through  the  rail  next  the  bottom  at  C,  and  the 
other  bolts  merely  pass  through  the  braces  either 
above  or  below  the  rails,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ing.    Tbe  connecting  pieces  D  must  be  just  %" 


FIG.     502.       ADJUSTABLE    FARM    GATE. 

above  the  top  rail  when  the  braces  are  vertical, 
as  in  Fig.  501. 

Fig.  502  shows  the  gate  completed  and  the 
braces  pushed  back  to  hold  it  square.  These 
braces  must  be  put  on  loosely  enough  so  that 
they  will  work  easily  back  and  forward,  and 
washers  should  be  put  between  the  braces  and 
rail  at  C. 


The  plan  of  a  gate  that  can  be  instantly  ad- 
justed to  any  height  to  swing  over  snowdrifts        w, 
or  set  high  enough  to  allow  sheep  or  pigs  to 


FIG.     503.       ADJUSTABLE    FARM    GATE. 


282 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


Fig.  502  shows  how  the  gate  is  raised  up  and 
the  braces  pushed  back  to  hold  it  to  allow  pigs 
to  run  under  it.  It  may  be  raised  much  higher 
than  this  if  desired.  By  pulling  the  brace  for- 
ward the  end  of  the  gate  drops  to  the  ground 
and  this  serves  to  keep  it  open  when  desired. 
The  hinges  are  common  strap  and  screw  hinges, 
the  strap  around  as  shown  in  Fig.  503  and 
bolted  to  the  vertical  pieces. 


Fig.  504  shows  a  gate  that  has  been  used  con- 
stantly for  the  last  30  years.  Probably  the  best 
material  out  of  which  to  make  it  is  seasoned 
white  oak  or  black  walnut.  Use  fencing  boards 
1"  thick,  6"  wide  and  12'  long,  and  for  an  ordi- 
nary gate  five  planks  high  is  enough.  Bolt  the 
gate  together  with  i/4"  bolts  and  washers;  leave 
the  upright  boards  where  the  hinges  are  fas- 
tened 6"  wide  and  the  other  uprights  and  braces 
3"  wide,  which  is  strong  enough  and  much 
lighter.     Let  the  braces  into  the  uprights,  top 


a  yard  of  small  broken  stone  or  bats  well 
rammed  in  from  bottom  to  top  mixed  with  the 
dirt  or  clay.  Set  the  posts  12'  4"  apart,  2" 
at  each  end  of  the  gate  space.  Set  the  gate  4" 
off  the.  ground,  level  on  top,  and  leave  2"  at  the 
top  so  as  to  make  it  open  upward  and  hang  shut 
when  not  fastened.  Make  the  hinges  of  heavy 
wagon-tire  iron,  four  %"  bolts  to  each. 


Fig.  505  shows  a  gate  that  is  made  of  com- 
mon fence  boards  generally  16'  long  fastened 
together  with  wire  nails  clinched,  then  hung  on 
a  cleat  between  two  posts  set  close  together.  One 
of  the  posts  should  reach  up  about  2'  above  the 
gate  with  pivot  for  the  level  to  turn  on.  No 
matter  what  the  heft  of  the  gate  is  when  fin- 
ished the  lever  can  be  weighted  until  a  small 
child  can  open  or  shut  the  gate  with  ease.  This 
gate  swings  only  one  way. 

Fig.  506  shows  a  gate  that  never  sags.  When 
made  of  walnut  or  any  other  hard  wood  and 
bolted  together  it  will  last  indefinitely.  Gates 
of  this  type  put  up  ten  years  ago  and  made  of 
black  walnut  1"  x  4"  are  good  today  and  swing 
clear  of  the  ground.    A  post  to  which  to  fasten 


FIG.     504.       A     STRONG     GATE. 


FIG.     506.       GATE     THAT     DOES     NOT     SAG. 


and  bottom,  1/4".  The  posts  should  be  10'  long 
for  a  five-plank  gate.  Cut  the  tops  slanting  like 
a  roof  and  nail  on  a  short  board  for  top.  The 
bottom  of  the  posts  should  go  into  the  ground 
4'  deep  in  a  hole  made  large  enough  to  contain 


t 

n 

""" 

— -== 

1 

_• 

II 

r 

1 1 

II 

the  gate  when  open  will  be  found  convenient, 
for  when  properly  hung  the  gate  will  not  stand 
open  unless  held. 


FIG.     505.       GATE    MADE    OF    FENCE    BOARDS. 


The  art  of  hanging  a  farm  gate  is  not  gener- 
ally understood,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  so 
many  gates  have  their  ''noses"  in  the  ground. 
It  is  useless  to  say  that  the  hanging  post  must 
be  well  secured,  for  if  a  man  does  not  care 
enough  about  the  working  of  his  gate  to  secure 
the  post,  a  gate  with  its  nose  in  the  ground  is 
good  enough  for  him.- 

Fig.  507  shows  a  gate  braced,  hung  and 
latched  as  a  Virginia  farmer  has  been  success- 
fully using  it  for  25  years.  A  gate  hung  and 
latched  like  this  is  easily  opened  on  horseback 
and  one  need  not  look  back  to  see  if  it  is  going 
to  latch.  At  iV  are  notches  21^"  or  3"  apart 
in  the  top  slat  for  a  bolt  in  the  top  of  the  braces 
to  rest  in ;  this  allows  the  gate  to  bo  adjusted 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


283 


FIG.     507.       HANGING    A    GATE. 

as  desired.  At  /  is  a  safe-pine,  to  prevent  hogs 
from  raising  the  gate.  At  L  two  strong  pins 
are  put  in  the  post  with  a  11/2"  or  2"  auger, 
with  a  1"  X  8"  x  15"  board  nailed  on  as  shown, 
with  the  side  next  to  the  gate  dressed.  The 
inner  edge  of  the  board  is  about  1"  from  the 
gate  and  just  far  enough  from  the  post  for  the 
latch  to  pass  behind  it  freely ;  the  outer  edge 
of  the  board  should  be  at  such  an  angle  from 
the  gate  as  will  cause  the  latch  to  strike  it  near 
the  outer  edge ;  this  causes  the  latch  to  swing 
back  and  glide  in  easily. 

Fig.  508  explains  how  the  gate  is  hung  to 
insure  self-shutting.  The  posts  are  leaned  from 
the  gate  about  3";  this  caulses  the  gate  to  rise 


FIG.    508.       HOW    A    GATE    IS    HUNG. 

as  it  is  opened  and  to  descend  as  it  is  shut.  The 
gate  comes  down  to  the  proper  place  when  shut. 
To  make  this  plan  of  hanging  plain,  if  the  gate 
stands  east  and  west  when  shut  and  points  south 
when  open  the  posts  should  lean  north;  the 
more  they  lean  the  higher  the  gate  will  rise 
when  open  and  the  more  heft  it  will  have  on 
going  shut.  Posts  should  stand  plumb  east  and 
west.  To  obtain  the  same  result  in  hanging 
gates  to  trees  or  posts  already  set  which  are 
plumb  the  bottom  hook  in  the  post  should  ex- 
tend about  3"  further  from  the  post  than  the 
top  one.  Hooks  must  be  put  inside  of  the  post 
as  in  Fig.  507.  At  S  in  Fig.  508  is  the  stake 
behind  to  prevent  the  gate  from  opening  around 
further  than  is  necessary.  The  second  and  top 
slats  should  not  be  less  than  1"  x  6",  the  braces 
1"  X  4".  On  several  gates  illustrated  in  this 
book  the  bottom  hinge  is  shown  to  be  on  the 
bottom   slat.      This   will   cause   it   to   rot   loose 


quicker  than  if  it  were  higher.  In  several  in- 
stances the  braces  are  shown  to  extend  to  the 
bottom,  which  will  cause  them  to  give  way  ear- 
lier from  decay. 

Fig.  509  shows  how  by  placing  a  stick  of 
timber  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground 
solidly  from  one  post  to  the  other  the  gate  is 


FIG.    509.       HOW    A    GATE    IS    HUNG. 

prevented  from  sagging  down  with  the  weight 
of  the  outer  end,  and  the  post  must  keep  its 
upright  position.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
sleeper  should  reach  clear  to  the  second  post, 
although  it  is  better.  The  earth  will  hold  it  if 
it  is  6'  long.  At  right  angles  to  this  sleeper 
put  another  in  the  direction  that  the  gate  is 
to  open  and  the  post  will  never  sag  in  that 
direction  either. 


Fig.  510  shows  a  good  strong  gate  that  may 
be  very  quickly  nailed  together  and  it  is  rigid 
and  retains  its  shape  well  with  age  and  hard 
usage.    The  two  short  braces  make  a  better  and 


FIG.     510.       A     GATE     EAST     TO     MAKB. 

stiffer  gate  than  one  long  one  would.  Good  pine, 
1"  x  4",  will  answer  for  this  gate,  and  about  12- 
penny  nails  to  put  it  together  so  that  they  may 
clinch  well  will  serve  as  well  as  bolts. 


Fig.  511  shows  a  gate  with  a  wire  brace. 
"When  there  is  much  snow  to  obstruct  gates  it  is 
sometimes  desirable  to  raise  them  high  enough 
to  allow  them  to  swing  over  the  drifts.  The 
wire  looping  around  the  gate  and  not  fastened 
except  at  the  upper  corner  may  be  slipped  down 
as  the  gate  is  raised  to  hold  the  outer  end  at  any 
angle.  The  wire  brace  should  not  come  so  low 
when  the  gate  is  square  as  drawn ;  when  slipped 
down  to  position  shown  the  gate  should  be  in 


284 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.     512.       GATE     WITH     WIRE    BRACE. 

the  same  shape  as  Fig.  512.     This  gate  must  be 
bolted  together,  one  bolt  at  each  intersection. 


Fig.  513  shows  a  very  strong  and  durable  gate, 
neat-looking  and  adapted  to  use  along  roadsides 
where  a  neat  gate  is  desirable.  It  is  not  expen- 
sive to  construct.  The  frame  is  of  good  pine, 
2"  X  4",  except  the  heel  post,  which  is  4"  x  4". 


FIG.      513.       WOVEN     WIRE     GATE. 

On  this  frame,  which  is  mortised  together,  is 
stretched  and  stapled  some  sort  of  woven  wire 
fencing  that  will  not  be  injured  by  hard  usage. 
There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  wire  fencing 
that  may  be  made  right  on  the  frame  as  wanted. 
Large,  strong  hinges  with  screw  bolts  to  go  into 
the  post  a  good  distance  are  advised  for  any 
kind  of  gate. 


Fig.  514  illustrates  a  form  of  gate  that  is  in 
extensive  use  in  many  localities.  It  is  a  12' 
gate.  From  upright  A  to  upright  B  is  8'  and 
from  upright  B  to  (7  is  4'.     The  cut  also  shows 


a  form  of  home-made  spring  latch  which  will  be 
found  very  useful,  especially  when  one  wants 
to  open  the  gate  from  on  horseback.  1,  of 
course,  is  the  latch  handle  working  on  a  bolt 


FIG.      514.       GATE     WITH     LATCH. 


at  E;  2  is  the  latch  proper ;  3  is  the  latch  spring 
fastened  at  H  and  G  with  the  upper  end  bolted 
to  the  end  of  the  latch. 


The  gate  illustrated  in  Fig.  515  is  made  of 
3"  strips  11/4"  at  one  end  and  %"  at  the  other. 


FIG.      515.       LIGHT     FARM     GATE. 

A  is  made  of  12"  plank  1"  thick.  The  strips 
are  nailed  onto  A.  The  ordinary  hinge  is  used. 
The  top  hinge  is  on  one  side  and  the  bottom 
hinge  on  the  other  side.  The  gate  is  hung 
plumb.  The  bottom  hinge  must  be  put  on  the 
side  where  the  gate  is  to  open.  Make  the  gate, 
put  on  the  hinges  and  then  plumb  it.  Mark 
where  to  bore  holes  in  the  post  while  the  gate 
is  standing  propped  up  against  the  post.  Any 
one  can  make  and  hang  such  a  gate. 


A  type  of  gate  used  a  great  deal  in  the  south 
and  shown  in  Fig.  516  usually  is  made  of  oak 
timber  and  lasts  remarkably  well.  It  is  light 
and  strong.  The  post  A  is  set  3'  in  the  ground. 
F  shows  a  section  of  the  post  where  the  latch 


FIG.    516.       G.VTE    USED    IN    THE    SOUTH. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


285 


strikes  it.  The  latch  slips  into  the  mortise  after 
it  is  pushed  back  by  sliding  on  the  bevel.  The 
post  B  is  set  4'  in  ground.  The  latch  is  sus- 
pended by  two  pieces  of  No.  10  wire  and  the 
whole  gate  is  made  of  1"  x  3"  oak  strips.  Nos. 
8  and  10  wire  nails  clinched  across  the  grain 
mav  be  used.    They  hold  as  well  as  bolts. 


A  Tennessee  farm  gate  is  presented  in  Fig. 
517.  It  is  light,  cheap  and  durable.  It  can  be 
made  as  tall  or  as  low  as  may  be  desired  by 


FIG.      517.       TEXXESSEE     FARM     GATE. 

using  many  or  few  horizontal  bars.  The  draw- 
ing shows  six  bars  which  cut  1"  x  4"  and  prop- 
erly spaced  make  the  gate  just  5'  high. 


The  ^Minnesota  farm  gate  shown  in  Fig.  518 
will  stand  a  great  deal  of  rough  usage.  It  is 
made  of  four  2"  x  6"  planks  (hard  pine  pre- 
ferred), 6"  apart,  making  it  42"  in  width,  and 
four  1"  x  6"  cross  pieces.  All  are  nailed  to- 
gether, and  also  bolted  by  5"  x  %"  bolts  except 
the  rear-end  groove  wheel,  which  is  fastened  on 
by  a  6"  x  Yo"  ^o^t-  A  6"  pulley  can  be  used 
for  the  groove  wheel.     The  front  bottom  wheel 


of  a  barn  or  shed  by  bolts  or  nails.  The  top 
length  of  the  gate  is  20';  bottom  length  16'  6"; 
height  from  ground  48",  It  is  an  easy  gate  to 
open. 


A  GATE  OF  WIRE, 


The  wood  used  in  building  a  wire  gate  should 
be  of  the  best  and  most  durable  sort.  If  it 
could  be  boiled  in  linseed  oil,  or  soaked  in  creo- 
sote, to  prevent  decay,  it  would  be  well.    Making 


ZIIIIIIIIII 


FIG.      519.       GATE     OF     WIRE. 


a  wire  gate  is  much  more  labor  than  making 
one  all  of  wood.  Wire  gates  are  light  and 
handy,  however,  and  look  well.  They  are  not 
well  adapted  to  the  hardest  use.  The  gate  il- 
lustrated in  Fig.  519  is  mortised  together;  it 
should  be  very  neatly  done,  and  the  wire  put  in 
as  shown,  spaced  4"  to  6"  apart.  The  wires  are 
put  through  the  wood  and  clinched.  At  the 
intersections  they  are  locked  together.  Use  the 
washer  device. 


MINNESOTA    FARM     GATE. 


is  a  6"  band  wheel  taken  from  any  old  ma- 
chine. It  is  bolted  to  the  gate  with  strap-iron 
by  6"  X  i/'o"  bolts.  The  cross  pieces  are  on  both 
sides  of  the  planks.  At  the  bottom  of  two  rear 
posts  is  a  roller  for  the  gate  to  slide  or  roll  in 
between.  The  upper  rear  groove  wheel  B  rolls 
on  a  beaded  2"  x  6"  plank  which  can  be  fastened 
on  the  wire  or  board  fence,  or  else  on  the  side 


BRACES  FOR  FARM  GATES, 

The  arrows  in  the  accompanying  illustration 
{Fig.  520)  show  two  braces  added  to  the  usual 
farm  gate  which  materially  increase  its  strength. 
These  can  be  conveniently  put  on  old  gates  or 
new  and  will  prevent  gates  from  warping  or 
sagging. 


286 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    520.       BRACES    FOR    GATES. 

Manufacturers  find  that  a  better  and  cheaper 
gate  can  be  made  with  nails  than  bolts.  Some 
use  1"  X  3"  12'  slats  and  nail  from  both  sides. 
Two  good  hands  can  make  from  10  to  12  nailed 
gates  per  day  and  if  made  from  good  timber  and 
painted  white  they  will  last  longer  than  bolted 
gates. 

An  Ohio  farmer  gives  his  views  as  follows  on 
farm  gates:  We  have  just  finished  overhauling 
our  gates  which  have  had  for  ten  years  the  rough 
handling  of  tenants.  We  find  the  gates  hung 
with  hinges  made  by  our  blacksmith  with  straps 
2'  long  and  hooks  long  enough  to  go  through 
the  posts,  and  with  screw  taps  on  the  end  all 
swing  clear,  although  made  and  hung  many 
years  ago.  On  the  other  hand,  all  gates  hung 
with  straps  and  hooks  that  screw  into  the  posts 
5"  to  6"  are  loose  and  gates  sagged  and  several 
of  the  hooks  are  out  and  lost.  The  latter  straps 
and  screw-hooks  with  bolts  are  furnished  at 
hardware  stores.  They  do  well  for  a  few  years, 
but  are  not  so  cheap  in  the  long  run  or  so  sat- 
isfactory as  the  heavier  blacksmith-made  hinges. 
The  latter  are  seldom  used  now  by  farmers.  The 
ready-made  hinges  are  neat  and  handy,  but  fail 
to  give  satisfactory  service  as  a  rule. 

We  have  three  styles  of  gates.  The  cheapest 
is  placed  where  not  often  used  and  not  along 
the  highway  or  near  the  houses  and  barns.  Our 
common  slide  gate  is  made  12'  long  and  4'  high. 
We  use  pine  fencing  boards  6"  wide  and  12' 
long,  of  good  quality,  free  from  coarse  knots. 
Six  boards  are  required  for  a  gate  five  boards 
high.  The  spaces  between  boards,  beginning  at 
the  top,  are  9",  7"  and  3"  respectively.  The 
sixth  board,  cut  into  three  pieces  4'  long,  makes 
the  battens.  One  end  batten  is  set  back  6"  from 
the  end  of  the  gate ;  the  other  is  set  flush  with 
the  end,  and  the  third  batten  is  in  the  middle 
of  the  gate.  The  gate  is  put  together  with 
eight-penny  wire  nails,  clinched.  We  set  two 
posts  with  sides  li/4"  apart  to  receive  the  end  of 


the  gate  up  to  the  batten.  We  next  set  a  post 
15"  in  from  the  other  end  of  the  gate  and  an- 
other on  the  side  to  which  the  gate  is  to  open  and 
nearer  to  the  end  of  the  gate,  so  as  to  allow 
the  gate  to  come  around  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  of  the  fence.  The  gate  is  to  be  supported  on 
two  cross  strips  nailed  to  the  two  posts.  The 
upper  strips  should  be  6"  wide,  coming  under 
the  top  board,  and  the  lower  strip  3"  wide,  com- 
ing under  the  second  board  from  the  bottom, 
so  that  the  gate  is  3"  from  the  ground.  Two 
strips  of  the  same  kind  should  be  put  on  the 
other  posts,  so  as  to  carry  the  gate  in  line  with 
the  fence.  If  these  bottom  strips  are  3"  wide, 
scant,  they  will  fill  the  bottom  space  at  each 
end  of  the  gate  and  prevent  hogs  from  lifting 
it.  If  now  a  1"  hole  is  bored  in  the  third  board 
of  the  gate  so  a  pin  can  pass  through  it  and 
between  the  two  heel  posts  the  gate  cannot  be 
moved  out  of  place  until  the  pin  is  removed. 

This  kind  of  a  slip  gate  is  very  convenient  for 
division  fences  where  there  is  not  frequent  pass- 
ing through.  The  posts  used  with  this  gate 
need  not  be  heavy.  We  find  round  posts,  too 
light  for  board  fence,  do  admirably  if  straight 
enough.  The  gate  will  last  longer  if  the  posts 
are  set  as  directed  and  there  is  only  space 
enough  between  the  posts  to  allow  the  gate  to 
pass  freely  and  not  have  much  play  when  closed. 
It  is  a  cheap  device,  easily  made,  handier  than 
bars  or  slip  gaps  and  will  last  10  to  15  years 
with  reasonable  care.  We  have  never  seen  a 
sliding  gate  that  was  equal  to  a  hinged  gate 
properly  made  and  well  hung.  It  is  miserable 
economy  to  go  to  the  expense  for  material  for 
a  gate  and  then  neglect  to  put  it  together  in  a 
substantial  manner,  or  to  hang  it  with  too  light 
hinges  to  posts  poorly  set  or  too  light  to  carry 
the  gate. 

We  have  several  swinging  gates  that  were 
made  fifteen  years  ago  and  are  good  for  several 
years  to  come.  Occasionally  we  find  one  of  these 
gates  with  a  broken  board  or  stem.  It  is  but 
a  small  task  to  loosen  the  screw  bolts  and  put 
in  a  new  piece  and  the  life  of  the  gate  is  pro- 
longed and  it  does  its  work  satisfactorily.  It  is 
very  poor  economy  to  neglect  the  gates  when 
they  drag  or  are  not  in  condition  to  turn  stock. 
Neglect  to  keep  gates  in  repair  is  even  more 
expensive  and  dangerous  than  to  neglect  fences. 
Either  entails  loss  to  stock  and  induces  bad 
habits  that  are  troublesome  and  costly  in  the 
end.  The  swinging  gates  are  12'  long  by  52" 
high.  This  is  4"  higher  than  a  common  board 
or  paling  fence.  It  is  better  to  have  the  gate 
higher  than  the  fence,  as  stock  will  naturally 
try  to  get  out  at  the  gates  before  they  will  try 
the  fence.    The  gate  yields  to  the  pressure  more 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


287 


than  the  fence,  and  if  a  little  higher  than  the 
fence  the  animals  are  less  apt  to  reach  over  and 
press  against  it.  To  straighten  the  top  board 
we  have  a  strip  3"  x  1"  nailed  to  the  top.  This 
stiffens  the  top  board  and  covers  the  ends  of 
the  battens  so  the  weather  does  not  check  the 
ends  nor  rot  wood  around  the  bolts. 


//  /.0>2j- 


FIG.    521.       OHIO    FARM    GATE. 


The  swing  gates  are  made  of  6"  fencing  of 
good  quality  put  together  with  bolts  3 14"  x  %", 
with  washers  under  the  tops.  Ours  are  five 
boards  high  and  the  spaces  between  the  boards 
beginning  at  the  top  are  8I/2",  6",  414"  and  3", 
respectively.  The  design  is  the  same  as  shown 
in  Fig.  521  having  the  one  long  brace  from  the 
lower  corner  of  the  end  to  which  the  hinges  are 
attached  to  the  upper  end  of  an  upright  4' 
from  the  swinging  end.  It  pays  to  make  the 
joints  of  the  brace  neat  and  true  and  even  to 
paint  the  ends  of  the  brace  and  battens  to  pre- 
vent decay.  The  lumber  should  be  fairly  well 
seasoned  and  bolts  well  drawn  up.  There  is 
little  danger  of  getting  the  hinges  too  heavy, 
but  much  danger  of  getting  them  too  light. 
"We  find  that  where  the  bolt  nearest  the  hook 
is  %"  or  less  it  breaks  before  any  other  part  of 
the  gate.     The  most  of  the  hinges  found  in  the 


stores  take  too  small  bolts.  If  the  heel  bolts 
hold  and  the  hooks  that  screw  into  the  post  do 
not  fail  such  a  gate  will  last  longer  than  the 
average  fence.  The  gate  is  lighter  if  made 
with  the  brace  and  front  battens  3"  x  1",  and 
we  find  they  do  not  give  out.  The  slide-latch  is 
3"  X  1",  sides  planed  to  move  freely.  It  enters 
a  slot  or  mortise  in  the  post.  The  mortise 
should  be  5"  long  and  2"  deep  and  a  full  inch 
wide  to  admit  the  latch  freely,  yet  without  much 
play.  A  handy  man  can  make  and  hang  this 
gate  in  less  than  half  a  day. 

We  liave  another  style  of  gate  for  along  the 
highway  and  near  the  barn,  the  grove,  the  car- 
riage-house and  other  places  where  appearances 
count  something.  The  illustration  {Fig.  521) 
shows  this  gate.  Gates  of  this  style  have  been 
painted  every  four  years  and  those  on  the  high- 
way and  grove  and  near  the  carriage-house  are 
sound  and  swing  as  clear  as  they  did  25  years 
ago,  and  have  not  cost  a  cent  for  repairs  except 
paint.  The  posts  the  gates  are  hung  to  are 
white-oak,  9'  long,  butt  cuts,  squared  to  10"  at 
the  saw-mill  half  the  length  and  left  under 
cover  a  year  to  dry  out  and  not  crack.  The  posts 
were  set  4'  in  the  ground  and  are  all  good  for 
many  years  yet.  The  tops  of  the  posts  are 
painted  and  covered  with  tin  painted  on  both 
sides.  Such  gates  and  posts  are  a  soild  com- 
fort, and  considering  the  service  and  satisfac- 
tion given  they  are  not  more  expensive  than 
some  of  the  cheaper  sorts  that  have  given  their 
owners  no  satisfaction  and  been  an  endless 
annoyance.  In  the  building  of  farm  gates  and 
fences  that  are  to  protect  our  crops  and  live 
stock  and  make  life  endurable  and  less  of  a 
burden  it  pays  to  build  thoroughly  well. 

AN  ENTRANCE  GATE. 

The  gate  illustrated  {Fig.  522)  is  simple, 
very  strong,  sightly  and  durable.     The  top  and 


FIG.    522.       ENTRANCE    GATE    WITH    COBBLESTONE    POSTS. 


288 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


bottom  rails  should  be  of  2"  x  3"  stuff,  of  some 
durable  timber  not  given  to  warping.  The  de- 
sign is  from  the  Island  of  Jersey  and  it  is  in- 
teresting to  study  it  in  detail.  It  is  the  work 
of  an  engineer  as  well  as  of  an  artist.  There 
is  not  an  unnecessary  bit  of  wood  about  it ;  the 
bracing  is  admirable,  and  even  the  little  tri- 
angular bits  of  wood  serve  to  keep  the  dogs  from 
jumping  through  the  openings.  When  the  gate 
is  made  stain  it  with  oil  and  burnt  umber, 
afterwards  oil  it  with  boiled  linseed  oil. 

GATE  POSTS  OF  COBBLE  STONES. 

Gate  posts  made  of  cobble  stones  are  common 
in  Southern  California.  They  are  laid  up  with- 
out much  mortar  showing.  About  2i/2  barrels 
of  Portland  cement  will  do  the  work. 

The  first  step  in  building  them  is  to  dig  a 
hole  as  though  for  a  moderately  large  wooden 
post,  about  4'  deep.  The  posts  themselves  are 
30"  square,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  carry  this 
size  clear  down  and  there  is  a  saving  of  expense 
to  make  the  bottom  of  the  hole  smaller.  When 
the  hole  is  dug,  set  up  in  it  an  old  buggy  axle  or 
a  piece  of  2"  pipe,  any  convenient  piece  of  iron 
for  a  reinforcing  core.  About  this  core  throw 
concrete  material  and  tamp  it  solid.  When  with- 
in 18"  of  the  surface  have  a  trench  dug  trans- 
versely through  the  center  of  the  post,  6'  long, 
and  fill  it  half  full  of  concrete,  then  lay  down 
any  old  or  new  iron  rod  in  the  center  of  it,  or 
a  twisted  wire  cable,  and  fill  it  up  with  more 
concrete  to  within  6"  of  the  top  of  the  ground. 
It  may  be  covered  over  with  sand  or  gravel. 
This  will  become  an  integral  part  of  the  post, 
and  effectually  prevent  its  moving  to  the  right 
or  the  left,  backwards  or  forwards.  Have  the 
hole  30"  S(iuare,  dug  down  to  solid  earth,  and 
putting  down  a  layer  of  concrete  lay  upon  it 
the  first  square  of  cobble  stones.  When  they 
are  in,  the  space  between  them  may  be  filled 
with  the  least  desirable  specimens,  and  concrete 
poured  over  them  and  tamped  to  make  it  fill  all 
interstices.  Make  the  concreting  mortar  rather 
thin  so  that  it  will  readily  fill  all  the  voids  be- 
tween the  stones,  and  rather  rich  so  that  it  will 
adhere  strongly. 

When  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  reached 
you  need  a  box  of  inch  boards,  about  8"  high 
and  30"  square  on  the  inside,  a  form  to  guide 
you  in  laying  the  stones  and  to  prevent  their 
being  pressed  out  by  the  concrete.  Fill  this  box 
around  the  outer  edge  with  selected  stones, 
throw  bad  sorts  in  the  inside,  and  fill  it  again 
with  cementing  mortar.  Then  add  another  box, 
and  so  on  until  the  desired  height  is  reached, 
not  forgetting  to  lay  in  the  hinges  at  the  right 
time,  and  the  piece  for  the  latch  in  the  oppo- 


site post.  The  hinges  should  be  made  of  very 
heavy  stuff  and  be  inserted  at  least  18"  into 
the  cement,  and  turned  over  at  the  ends,  then 
they  will  never  come  loose  or  give  trouble. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  put  in  any  cement  on 
the  outside  of  the  stones,  so  that  most  of  them 
do  not  show  that  they  are  laid  in  cement,  though 
it  should  be  pushed  in  well  between  them,  so 
that  each  stone  has  half  its  surface  in  contact 
with  the  cement  and  is  held  in  an  iron  grip. 

Stone  walls  may  be  readily  made  by  this  plan, 
a  simple  box  to  hold  the  cobble  stones,  which 
may  line  one  side  or  both,  being  used.  If  it  is 
for  a  house  wall  it  is  well  to  leave  the  inner 
side  smooth,  for  the  cellar  surface,  the  cobble 
stones  to  appear  only  outside.  There  are  re- 
gions where  these  water-worn  small  stones  are 
very  plentiful,  and  used  in  this  way  they  are 
a  real  economy.    (See  Fig.  522.) 

A  GOOD  LATCH  FOR  FARM  GATES. 

The  latch  shown  in  Figs.  523  and  524  is  made 
of  a  piece  of  1"  or  •)4"  round  iron  with  a  thread 


FIG.    523.       TYPE    OF    GATE    LATCH. 


Vosi 


^3/if    iroK 


(^ai^  Si'ol 


FIG.  524.   TYPE  OF  GATE  LATCH  (GATE  CLOSED). 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


289 


cut  on  one  end  so  that  it  may  be  screwed  into 
the  post  and  a  %"  hole  drilled  through  the 
other  end  in  Avhich  is  passed  a  piece  of  y^'  iron, 
or  a  little  larger,  which  is  welded  into  a  ring 
and  then  bent  into  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  524. 
This  is  screwed  into  the  post  and  the  wooden 
latch  or  one  of  the  gate  boards  extends  out  to 
engage  it  on  the  under  side.  A  little  loop  of 
wire  about  the  raising  part  of  the  latch  keeps 
it  from  flying  clear  over  when  struck  hard  by 
the  gate,  or  a  pin  may  be  thrust  through  the 
stem  and  the  latch.  A  blacksmith  can  make  one 
of  these  latches  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

A  FARM  GATE  LATCH. 

The  farm  gate  latch  shown  in  Fig.  52~)  works 
easily  and  automatically.  The  illustration  shows 
both  sides  of  the  gate  and  the  large  wooden  catch 


FIG.    525.       FARM    GATE    LATCH. 


that  is  attached  to  the  post.  This  should  be  of 
durable  hardwood  and  well  painted,  then  it 
will  always  be  smooth  and  will  work  easily. 


and  permit  it  to  swing  either  way.  The  gate 
must  be  short  enough  so  as  to  swing  past  the 
post.  When  the  gate  is  opened  it  will  be  farther 
from  the  ground  at  the  swing  end  than  at  the 
post.  When  there  is  snow  on  the  ground  it  will 
rise  over  it  instead  of  pushing  it  back.  No.  1 
is  the  hinge  part  for  the  post ;  No.  2,  hinge  part 
for  gate.  The  distance  between  the  lugs  (AA) 
is  5".  The  greater  this  distance  the  higher  the 
end  of  the  gate  will  rise  as  it  opens.  The  shanks 
(DD)  of  hinge  parts  Nos.  1  and  2  are  driven 
into  the  post  and  gate,  respectively.    When  the 


Lj 


A  FARM  GATE  HINGE. 


The  cut,  Fig.  526,   is  of  a  hinge  which,   if 
applied,  will  keep  a  gate  shut  without  a  latch 


FIG.     526.       FARM    GATE    HIXGE. 

gate  is  hung  the  sockets  (BB)  bear  against  the 
lugs  (AA),  one  or  the  other  of  the  lugs  acting 
as  the  pivot,  according  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  gate  is  opened.  Fig.  526  gives  the  position 
of  Nos.  1  and  2  when  viewed  from  the  post 
end,  D  being  the  shank  which  is  driven  into 
the  post.  A  hook-and-eye  hinge  is  used  at  the 
top  of  the  gate.  The  nut  on  the  shank  of  this 
liinge  is  used  in  adjusting  the  gate  so  as  to 
hang  level. 

BUILDING   A  PORTABLE   FENCE. 

Portable  fences  are  useful  in  many  situations 
— for  making  temporary  hog  lots,  for  pasturing 
off  clover  and  for  hurdling  sheep.  There  are 
many  forms,  but  probably  nothing  better  than 
the  simple  designs  shown  in  Figs.  527  to  529. 
Fig.  527  shows  a  panel  12'  long  and  4'  high, 
made  of  5  boards  1"  x  6"  and  12'  long.  One  of 
these  boards  is  cut  into  short  lengths  and  holds 
the  panel  together.  It  will  be  noted  how  the 
top  and  bottom  boards  extend  out  about  6" ; 
this  is  to  let  them  rest  upon  the  "horse"  that 
will  hold  them.  The  horse  is  made  of  two  pieces 
1"  X  4"  6'  long;  if  stuff  can  be  gotten  W^" 
thick  by  4"  wide  all  the  better,  and  a  bottom 
piece  1"  X  4"  that  is  5'  long.  Three  bolts  hold 
the  horse  together.  Notches  are  cut  to  receive 
the  panel.  This  fence  is  very  rapidly  erected 
and  having  a  base  5'  wide  it  is  not  easily  upset, 


290 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


nr 


I- 


Pi 


••a^ 


FIG.    527.       BUILDING    A    PORTABLE    FENCE. 


u 


FIG.    52 &.       BUILDING  A  PORTABLE   FENCE. 


though  it  is  sometimes  staked  down  by  driving 
small  stakes  on  one  side  of  the  feet  of  the  horse 
and  driving  a  nail  through.  Fig.  529  shows 
another  type  of  portable  fence,  rather  more  rigid 
than  the  first.  Fig.  528  shows  how  it  is  erected 
into  a  fence,  by  setting  the  panels  in  a  slight 
zigzag.      In   the   cut   it   shows   a   spread   of   5' 


o 

o 
o 
o 

-]2 -  - 

o 

0 

o 

o 

1 1 

o 

1  1 

o 

FIG.     529.       ANOTHER     TYPE     OF    PORTABLE     FENCE. 

and  a  length  of  panel  of  12'.  The  tops  and  bot- 
toms are  held  together  at  the  ends  by  means  of 
loops  of  strong  wire.  This  also  is  very  rapidly 
erected  and  serves  a  good  purpose.  Portable 
fences  should  be  made  of  the  best  of  wood  or 
else  thoroughly  soaked  in  linseed  oil  or  creosoted. 


A  PORTABLE  PICKET  FENCE. 

^i(j.  530  is  of  a  portable  picket  worm  fence. 
The  rails  should  be  2"  x  3"  or  2"  x  4"  and  the 
length  the  builder  desires  the  panel.  A  10' 
panel  should  have  a  4'  worm  when  built  on  a 
straight  line.  The  thickness,  width  and  length 
of  the  pickets  can  be  made  to  suit  the  builder. 
The  rails  should  be  shouldered  on  ends,  as 
shown,  so  the  end  of  one  panel  will  slip  into 
the  end  of  the  other  and  not  allowed  to  lie  on 
the  top  of  the  other,  so  hogs  cannot  raise  the 
end  of  one  panel  off  the  end  of  the  other  and 
thus  make  an  opening  in  the  fence.  The  laps 
on  the  ends  of  the  rails  should  be  about  2i/4" 
long  and  have  holes  bored  in  them  to  admit  a 
20d  nail  easily,  so  when  moving  the  fence  they 
will  not  be  hard  to  get  out.  The  pickets  should 
be  nailed  as  close  to  the  end  of  rails  as  possible, 
so  as  to  make  no  large  cracks  where  the  panels 
join.  A  panel  3'  high  with  the  end  pickets  long 
enough  to  stretch  a  barbed  wire  on  top  of  each 
panel  makes  a  light  fence  on  which  wire  will  not 
have  much  effect.  One  advantage  of  this  fence 
is  that  one  can  open  it  at  any  place  desired  to 
go  through  by  simply  pulling  out  two  nails. 


'^Oj 


'^(^. 


«f^ 


BARB  WIRF 


'% 


%■■ 


LENGTH  OF  PANEL  10-- 


I: 


rPICKETS  1«2-5L0NG 


RAIL  2'«A'  ~\ 


/- 


LAP  21 


10- 


FIQ.    530.      PORTABLE  PICKET  FENCE. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


291 


DIPPING  TANK  CONSTRUCTION. 

It  behooves  every  stock  owner  to  see  that  his 
animals  are  free  from  skin  parasites.  Young 
stock  especially  should  receive  attention  in  this 
matter.  The  cold  rains,  sleet  and  snow  of  win- 
ter are  new  experiences  to  many  of  them  and 
even  if  they  are  in  perfect  condition  and  free 
from  parasites  the  winter  months  tax  their  vital- 
ity severely.  ^Matters  will  be  much  worse  if 
lice,  fleas,  mites  and  ticks  are  robbing  the  young 
animals  of  the  nourishment  they  need.  Lousy 
animals  may  pull  through  the  winter,  but  the 
setback  which  they  receive  from  the  combined 
effects  of  parasites  and  cold  stormy  weather 
seriously  impairs  their  usefulness. 

As  a  means  of  correcting  this  condition,  dip- 
ping is  a  question  that  stockmen  can  well  afford 
to  think  about.  It  was  not  many  years  ago  that 
sheep  were  the  only  animals  supposed  to  re- 
quire dipping,  and  the  very  suggestion  of  dip- 
ping hogs  or  cattle  would  have  been  ridiculed. 
\Vliy  such  a  sentiment  should  exist  concerning 
the  dipping  of  hogs  and  cattle  is  not  clear.  The 
latter  animals  suffer  just  as  much  from  para- 
sites as  sheep  do.  Fortunately  this  prejudice 
is  disappearing.  Dipping  is  now  recognized  as 
the  easiest  and  most  satisfactory  treatment  of 
mange  and  other  skin  diseases  of  cattle,  and  the 
best  swine  breeders  of  the  country  regard  dip- 
ping as  essential  to  their  success.  No  domestic 
animal  can  thrive  while  it  is  being  tormented 
by  lice,  and  the  food  it  eats  is  being  stolen  by 
myriads  of  parasites.  No  manner  of  combating 
skin  parasites  and  diseases  is  equal  to  that  of 
submerging  the  animal  affected  in  a  fluid  capa- 
ble of  destroying  the  pests ;  that  is,  dipping. 

Of  course  it  is  essential  that  the  fluid  used 
should  not  be  injurious  to  the  animal  itself. 
Spraying  or  scrubbing  or  dusting  with  insect 
powders  or  greasing  with  lard  and  sulphur  will 
furnish  some  relief  to  animals  infested  with 
parasites,  but  there  is  nothing  equal  to  a  swim 
in  a  good  penetrating  dip.  The  selection  of  an 
efficient  dip  is  essential ;  that  is,  one  that  will 
destroy  unfailingly  the  parasites  and  at  the 
same  time  have  no  bad  effect  upon  the  skin  and 
hair  or  fleece.  Coaltar  carbolic  dips  are  being 
recognized  as  the  most  satisfactory  prepara- 
tions, since  they  come  nearest  meeting  these  re- 
quirements. They  are  death  to  lice  and  mites 
and  other  vermin,  and  at  the  same  time  their 
effect  upon  the  skin  and  hair  is  stimulating  and 
invigorating,  rather  than  otherwise. 

The  tank  problem  is  one  which  puzzles  many 
farmers.  The  galvanized  iron  tank  fills  a  long- 
felt  want  for  a  light  durable  tank,  without  leaks 
and  is  easily  transported  from  place  to  place. 


Tanks  of  this  description  are  manufactured  in 
the  large  cities  and  are  becoming  popular 
throughout  the  countr3\  j\Iany  regard  a  galvan- 
ized iron  tank  as  rather  too  expensive,  especially 
w^here  high  freight  charges  must  be  added  to 
original  cost.  jNIany  farmers  would  prefer  to 
construct  a  tank  from  materials  that  may  be 
obtained  close  at  home,  working  at  the  job  at 
odd  times  and  thus  utilizing  time  which  would 
otherwise  be  of  little  value.  For  this  reason 
many  will  be  glad  to  get  plans  and  specifications 
for  home-made  tanks.  Here  is  a  plan  for  a  tank 
made  of  lumber.  The  material  should  not  cost 
more  than  $4  or  $5.  The  directions  are  given 
for  a  tank  of  the  following  dimensions  with  the 
idea  that  they  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  con- 
venience of  each  particular  case : 

Length  8';  depth  4';  width  (at  bottom)  16"; 
width  (at  top)  20";  capacity  about  360  gallons. 
These  dimensions  may  easily  be  varied  to  suit 
the  builder.  A  bottom  width  of  12"  or  14"  is 
wide  enough  for  ordinary  purposes;  6'  is  long 
enough  for  the  smaller  animals,  but  we  prefer 
an  8'  length,  and  10'  is  desirable  for  the  larger 
animals. 

The  side  pieces  are  of  2"  x  4"  material,  4',  4" 
in  length.  ]\Iake  ten  of  these  and  mortise  them 
into  the  sills  (which  are  also  of  2"  x  4"  mate- 
rial, 24"  long)  in   the   manner   shown    in   Fig. 


10 


.^ \6' 


If 


Z\ 


FIG,    531.      DIPPING    TANK     (SHAPE    OF    FRAMS). 


292 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


531,  which  is  a  view  from  below.  Fig.  531  will 
give  a  good  idea  of  one  of  the  U-shaped  frames. 
(Set  these  five  frames  upon  a  smooth  level  sur- 
face, 2'  apart,  and  secure  by  temporary  support. 
Be  sure  that  all  are  upright  and  true,  then  be- 
gin laying  the  sides.  The  sides  and  ends  are  of 
ys"  tongued  flooring.  The  sides  are  laid  first. 
Plane  the  tongue  from  one  piece  of  flooring  and 
place  this  upon  edge  on  the  sills,  planed  edge 
down.  There  should  be  a  small  projection  be- 
yond each  end-post ;  when  the  sides  are  fin- 
ished these  ends  are  sawed  ofi',  leaving  a  smooth 
planed  surface  for  the  end  boards  to  cover. 
Paint  the  tongue  and  groove  of  each  board  as 
it  is  laid. 

After  laying  a  few  boards  on  one  side  build 
the  other  side  to  an  equal  height.  The  bottom 
can  now  be  laid  much  more  conveniently  than 
if  this  is  postponed  until  the  sides  are  entirely 
enclosed.  For  the  bottom  use  two  8'  planks. 
Bevel  one  side  of  each  to  the  angle  of  the  sides, 
put  the  planks  in  place  and  draw  down  with 
bolts  through  the  sills.  The  bolts  used  in  the 
middle  sill  should  be  about  2"  longer  than  the 
others  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  the  ladder, 
which  is  described  later.  The  crack  between  the 
two  bottom  planks  should  be  covered  with  a  thin 
strip  of  batting  or  other  light  material.  Fig.  532 
illustrates  the  appearance  of  the   tank  at  this 


stage,  except  that  one  side  is  entirely  boarded 
up.  The  sides  are  now  finished  and  the  pro- 
jecting ends  sawed  off.  ]\luch  depends  on  this 
job.  If  done  properly  the  end  boards  when 
nailed  securely  will  make  a  water-tight  joint. 
Give  the  entire  box  a  good  coat  of  paint  inside 
and  outside. 

A  cement  tank  is  easily  and  cheaply  con- 
structed and  is  very  durable.  It  has  the  disad- 
vantage of  not  being  portable,  but  otherwise  is 
a  very  satisfactory  tank.  Select  a  rather  high, 
well-drained  spot  where  the  earth  is  firm.  If 
the  selection  can  be  such  that  a  drain  pipe  can 
be  laid  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  some  distance  away  so  much 
the  better.  Dig  a  pit  of  the  following  dimen- 
sions: Length  (at  top)  10';  length  (at  bot- 
tom) 5';  width  (at  bottom)  23";  width  (at  top) 
28";    depth   4'.     (See   Fig.    533.)     Smooth   the 


FIG.     533.       DIPPING    TANK     (SIDE    VIEW). 


FIG.      532.       DIPPING     TANK      SHOWING     CONSTRUCTION. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


293 


sides  of  this  pit  and  at  the  bottom  place  a  2" 
layer  of  cinders,  gravel  or  other  material  and 
tamp  until  firm. 

Make  a  frame  of  rough  lumber  4"  shorter  and 
8"  narrower  than  the  pit.  This  frame  will  then 
have  the  following  dimensions:  Length  (at 
top)  9',  8";  length  (at  bottom)  4',  8";  width 
(at  bottom)  15";  width  (at  top)  20";  depth  4'. 
This  frame  has  no  Hoor  at  the  bottom  or  on  the 
slant  end.  Place  the  frame  in  the  pit  as  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  534.    This  frame  is  of  use  only  in 


FIG.     534.       DIPPIXG    TANK     (PIT). 

constructing  the  side  walls  and  the  vertical  end 
wall.  The  bottom  and  slant  end  are  laid  after 
the  frame  is  removed. 

]\rix  good  Portland  cement  with  coarse  sand 
and  gravel  at  the  rate  of  one  part  cement  to 
six  parts  sand.  Such  a  tank  will  require  from 
350  to  400  pounds  of  cement  and  something 
like  a  ton  of  gravel  and  sand  mixed.  Fill  in 
the  sides  and  straight  end  with  cement,  tamping 
well  as  the  filling  is  done.  Allow  plenty  of  time 
for  the  cement  to  set.  Two  weeks  is  not  too 
long;  if  the  ground  is  damp  a  longer  time 
should  be  given.  The  pit  should  be  covered 
by  means  of  a  tent  or  water-tight  roof  of  some 
kind  during  this  period,  in  order  that  chance 
showers  may  not  interfere  with  the  setting  of 
the  cement. 

After  the  sides  and  one  end  are  hard,  remove 
the  frame  and  lay  the  bottom  and  slant  end  with 
a  trowel.  In  the  angle  where  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  joins  the  slant  end,  two  bolts  should  be  em- 
bedded in  the  cement.  The  ends  should  project 
at  least  2"  above  the  surface  of  the  cement. 
These  are  for  the  attachment  of  a  ladder  to 
assist  the  animals  in  getting  out  of  the  tank. 
Round  the  joints  where  the  sides  join  the  bot- 
tom. If  this  is  done  properly  and  carefully 
there  will  be  no  danger  of  leakage.  When  the 
bottom  is  set  the  tank  is  ready  for  use. 

A  CATTLE  DIPPING  VAT. 

The  plan  of  the  cattle-dipping  plant  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  535  and  536,  is  one  that  has 
been  used  in  Nebraska  by  Richards  &,  Comstock 
since  they  built  their  first  dipping  tank,  about 
seven  years  ago,  since  which  time  they  have 
made  some  slight  alterations,  but  practically  are 
using  today  the  same  vats  used  before. 


The  dipping  plant  is  thus  described  by  the 
builders :  At  the  entrance  of  the  vat  is  a  trap, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration,  swinging  on  a 
pivot,  and  when  a  steer  goes  onto  this  trap  it 
would  tip  up  and  precipitate  the  animal  into  the 
vat.  We  found  that  this  was  not  satisfactory, 
so  changed  this  trap  to  a  slight  incline,  covering 
the  incline  with  a  piece  of  sheet  steel  8'  in 
length.  The  incline  is  made  with  a  drop  of  8" 
or  10"  in  6';  by  wetting  it  before  the  cattle 
go  onto  it,  it  becomes  very  slippery  and  acts  as 
a  toboggan  slide,  so  that  when  they  go  out  on 
this  incline  they  slide  off  into  the  vat,  com- 
pletely submerging  themselves,  as  the  solution 
in  the  vat  is  about  6'  deep. 

This  vat  is  made  from  2"  yellow  pine,  the  vat 
itself  being  set  in  the  ground  about  6'  or  8'. 
The  ribs  to  hold  the  sides,  as  well  as  the  bottom, 
are  4"  x  4s"  placed  about  4'  apart  and  bolted 
both  at  the  top  and  bottom  so  as  to  form  a  com- 
plete band  around  the  tank. 

We  have  one  vat  in  which  about  200,000  head 
of  cattle  have  been  dipped  and  the  only  part 
requiring  any  repairs  is  the  incline  where  the 
cattle  come  out  of  the  vat,  and  the  dripping  pen 
floor. 

The  planks  are  beveled  on  the  edges  and  the 
cracks  packed  with  oakum,  which  makes  a 
tighter  joint  than  if  they  were  tongued  and 
grooved.  The  cost  of  one  of  these  plants  with- 
out boiler  will  average  from  $175  to  $250,  ac- 
cording to  the  material,  labor  and  point  at  which 
it  is  constructed. 

We  have  a  man  stand  on  the  top  of  the  vat 
with  a  pole  arranged  with  an  iron  fork  to  go 
over  the  neck  so  as  to  crowd  the  steer  under  a 
second  time,  so  that  in  swimming  the  length  of 
the  vat  the  animal  is  completely  submerged 
twice. 

Originally  we  used  entirely  cold  preparations, 
but  from  careful  observation  as  well  as  thor- 
ough tests  we  find  that  it  should  be  used  hot,  so 
we  have  installed  12-horsepower  boilers  at  all 
of  our  plants  to  heat  the  solution  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  105°.  This  we  do  by  placing  the  boiler 
as  close  to  the  dipping  vat  as  possible,  then  run- 
ning a  steam  pipe,  generally  11^4"  size,  down 
into  the  corner  of  the  vat  by  the  entrance,  then 
along  the  bottom  of  the  tank  at  one  edge,  and 
perforating  the  pipe  with  %"  holes  about  18" 
apart  and  leaving  the  end  of  the  steam  pipe 
open,  so  that  the  steam  is  forced  out  from  the 
pipe  all  along.  We  find  that  this  keeps  the  tem- 
perature of  the  dip  the  same  throughout  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  vat. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  any  dip  that  is  really 
effective   will   kill    germs    and    parasites    much 


294 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


quicker  if  heated  than  when  cold.  Laboratory- 
tests  that  one  chemist  reported  to  us  show  that 
the  parasites  were  killed  instantly  in  a  solution 
at  a  temperature  of  105°,  while  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  32°  after  five  minutes'  immersion  they 
still  showed  signs  of  life.  When  put  in  sperm 
culture  after  having  been  immersed  for  five 
minutes  in  a  cold  solution  about  25  per  cent  of 
them  still  retained  life.  This  shows  beyond  any 
doubt  that  the  hot  application  is  the  proper  one 
to  use. 

Many  have  erroneously  believed  that  one  dip- 
ping of  an  animal  afflicted  with  lice  or  itch 
would  be  sufficient.  This  is  not  true.  The  egg 
which  is  laid  by  the  parasite  does  not  hatch  out 
for  some  time,  generally  from  seven  to  ten  days, 
and  any  preparation  that  is  strong  enough  to  kill 
these  eggs  would  be  very  disastrous  to  the  ani- 
mal, so  that  they  require  a  second  dipping  from 
eight  to  eleven  days  after  the  first.  This  is  ef- 
fective with  any  good  preparation  provided  the 
animals  dipped  have  been  kept  in  a  pen,  yard 
or  pasture  where  there  has  been  no  infection, 
as  the  dipping  of  cattle  is  not  a  preventive,  but 
simply  a  cure,  and  after  dipping  if  they  go  to  a 


FIG.        536.       CATTLE    DIPPING    VAT    IN    USB. 


SIDE  VIEW. 


iwm 


B,  FALSE  BACK. 
A.A.  MORlZOriTAL  BRACES 


PIG.    535.       CATTLE   DIPPING   VAT    SHOWING    CONSTRUCTION. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


295 


post,  shed  or  windmill  tower  or  any  similar 
thing  or  even  lie  down  where  the  post  or  ground 
is  infected  they  are  very  liable  to  become  in- 
fected again. 

Those  who  have  been  most  successful  in  ex- 
terminating this  trouble  from  their  herds  have 
adopted  a  system  of  dipping  every  week  or  ten 
days  each  animal  that  shows  any  indication  of 
it  until  it  is  completely  eradicated  from  the 
herd. 

After  dipping  seven  years  we  are  pleased  to 
say  that  we  consider  it  an  unqualified  success, 
which  every  herdsman  will  have  to  adopt. 

We  dip  all  our  cattle  once  a  year  to  insure 
their  being  free  from  trouble.  No  new  pur- 
chases are  allowed  to  go  onto  our  ranch  until 
after  they  have  been  dipped. 

A  DIPPING  VAT  FOR  SHEEP. 

The  strongest  argument  for  the  dipping  of 
sheep  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  best  way  of 
freeing  them  from  external  parasites.  Sheep 
are  very  frequently  troubled  with  red  lice,  which 
can  hardly  be  seen,  and  yet  they  cause  the  sheep 
unlimited  annoyance.  Dipping  will  completely 
destroy  them.  Ticks  cause  the  farm  flocks  of 
this  country  untold  annoyance  and  for  these 
dipping  is  thoroughly  effective.  Ticks  and  red 
lice  do  more  damage  than  sheepmen  are  aware 
of,  because  the  evidences  of  the  annoyance  which 
they  give  the  sheep  are  not  so  marked  as  in 
some  other  troubles,  but  they  are  none  the  less 
a  severe  check  to  their  well-doing.  Dipping  fol- 
lowed faithfully  each  year  will  completely  re- 
move the  baneful  results  from  the  presence  of 
these  parasites.  For  the  eradication  of  scab  dip- 
ping stands  first  among  remedial  measures. 

While  the  destruction  of  these  pests  is  usually 
the  mainly  accepted  argument  for  dipping,  yet 
there  are  others  that,  grouped  together,  make  a 
more  favorable  endorsement  of  the  operation. 
Among  these  may  be  briefly  mentioned  cleans- 
ing the  skin,  cleansing  the  wool,  and  particularly 
encouraging  the  growth  of  the  latter.  To  get 
the  fullest  returns  in  these  directions  the  dip- 
ping should  be  done  twice  each  year — in  the 
spring  shortly  after  shearing  and  again  in  the 
fall,  just  before  the  advent  of  winter. 

Shortly  after  shearing  it  is  an  advantage  to 
dip  the  flock  thoroughly  so  as  to  cleanse  the 
skin.  This  not  only  adds  to  the  thrift  of  the 
sheep  and  the  lambs,  but  in  both  instances  it 
favors  the  secretion  of  yolk,  and  this  means  the 
growth  of  a  sound,  live,  uncotted  fleece.  Not 
only  is  the  growth  of  wool  better  from  it,  but  it 
adds  directly  to  the  function  of  the  fleece  as  a 
protection  to  the  sheep.  The  fleece  of  a  sheep 
that  has  been  dipped  is  more  likely  to  remain 


intact  throughout  the  season,  as  there  is  no 
cause  for  the  sheep  rubbing  or  otherwise  break- 
ing the  compactness  of  it.  Another  advantage 
that  seems  to  follow  dipping  at  this  time  is  tliat 
it  seems  to  lessen  the  tendency  of  the  sheep  to 
lose  its  wool  in  spots  too  early  in  the  season. 
When  the  fleece  is  clean  and  healthy  it  seems  to 
continue  growing  longer  and  the  wool  does  not 
peel  in  patches.  Dipping  in  the  fall  is  more  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  from  the  fleece  such 
foreign  matter  as  may  have  been  gathered  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  also  freeing  it  from  any  of 
the  parasites  that  prove  such  an  annoyance  dur- 
ing the  winter  season.  Even  under  the  best 
conditions  the  fleece  is  likely  to  become  filled 
more  or  less  with  sand  and  other  foreign  matter 
which,  during  the  winter,  would  produce  such 
irritation  as  to  cause  the  sheep  to  rub  against 
sharp  surfaces  and  destroy  the  compactness  of 
the  fleece. 

By  dipping  sheep  late  in  the  fall.  Avhen  the 
ground  is  frozen,  and  then  keeping  them  away 
from  the  strawstacks  and  feeding  them  in  racks 
that  prevent  the  chaff  from  falling  into  the 
wool,  it  is  possible  to  put  a  clip  on  the  spring 
market  just  as  clean  as  if  the  sheep  had  been 
washed  just  previous  to  being  shorn. 

It  is  hard  to  measure  the  damage  that  is  done 
to  the  fleece  alone,  to  say  nothing  of  the  thrift 
of  the  sheep,  by  overlooking  dipping  in  the  fall. 
It  is  quite  common  to  see  sheep  in  the  ordinary 
flocks  of  the  country  with  fleeces  badly  broken 
])y  rubbing  under  wagons,  or  some  such  means, 
through  their  endeavors  to  get  rid  of  the  irrita- 
tion of  the  dirt  that  was  left  in  the  fleece.  Such 
fleeces  are  likely  to  become  cotted,  especially  if 
the  sheep  have  not  been  dipped  in  the  spring. 
Neglect  of  spring  dipping  is  apt  to  result  in  a 
decreased  secretion  of  yolk,  a  condition  which 
favors  cotting.  A  fiber  of  wool  is  covered  with 
scales  that  overlap  each  other  much  like  the 
shingles  on  a  roof.  To  keep  these  scales  down 
and  to  prevent  them  from  warping  just  as 
sli ingles  would  do  there  must  be  a  liberal  sup- 
ply of  yolk  in  the  fleece.  If  this  yolk  is  not  se- 
creted, owing  to  the  unthrifty  condition  of  the 
skin,  the  scales  rise  and  the  fibers  become  so 
matted  they  finally  reach  what  is  known  as  a 
cotted  condition. 

The  fleece  of  a  sheep  that  has  not  been  dipped, 
also  one  that  is  dirty  or  discolored,  sells  for 
3  or  4  cents  per  pound  less  in  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket than  the  fleece  of  a  sheep  that  has  been 
cleaned  by  dipping.  These  are  facts  that  may 
be  verified  every  spring.  It  is  said  that  the  bene- 
fits of  dipping  applied  to  a  single  fleece  would 
pay  for  the  dipping  of  more  than  a  dozen  sheep. 


296 


FARM  BUILDINGIS. 


While  the  foregoing  applies  especially  to 
breeding  flocks,  there  are  just  as  forcible  reasons 
for  dipping  feeders.  In  feeding  sheep  it  is  of 
prime  importance  to  reach  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible that  sappy  and  thrifty  condition  which  is 
conducive  to  good  gains.  Dipping  will  hasten 
this  and  also  remove  the  risk  of  unlimited  losses 
through  an  outbreak  of  scab.  It  is  good  policy 
to  take  it  for  granted  that  the  feeders  are  in 
need  of  a  dipping  rather  than  wait  for  the  evi- 
dence of  it  which  usually  comes  when  the  sheep 
should  go  to  market. 

Dipping  being  so  necessary  it  follows  that  it 
will  pay  to  arrange  for  a  dipping  vat  especially 
for  this  purpose.  The  cost  of  this  is  sometimes 
used  as  an  argument  against  it,  but  this  may 
be  easily  overcome  by  a  number  of  farmers  in  a 
community  combining  and  building  a  dipping 
vat  for  the  use  of  all.  It  would  be  easy  to  drive 
the  sheep  to  this  plant  and  the  ease  with  which 
they  may  be  dipped  would  result  in  a  consid- 
erable saving  of  labor. 

The  dipping  vat  (Fig.  537)  which  is  here- 
with described  cost  about  $50  and  could  be 
built  much  more  cheaply  with  some  study  as  to 
the  more  economical  use  of  material.  There  is 
one  feature  about  this  vat  which  is  not  wholly 
satisfactory,  and  that   is   due   to   the   fact  that 


Laroe  Yard 


FIG.     537.       DIPPING    VAT    FOR    SHEEP. 

the  planks  used  in  making  the  vat  are  not  as 
durable  as  they  should  be.  Iron  tanks  which 
are  manufactured  would  be  much  more  satis- 
factory on  that  account.  An  ordinary  wooden 
vat  well  painted  will  last  several  years,  but  in 


making  a  vat  of  this  kind  it  would  be  better  to 
put  a  little  extra  money  in  it  so  as  to  make  it 
more  durable. 

The  ground  plan  {Fig.  537)  readily  explains 
the  general  arrangement.  The  only  point  to 
which  attention  may  be  called  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  yards  is  that  there  are  no  corners 
for  the  sheep  to  be  crowded  in,  conseciuently 
they  move  along  as  freely  as  required.  Each 
catching  pen  is  exactly  the  same  size  as  each 
of  the  draining  pens,  consequently  they  hold  the 
same  number  of  sheep.  By  taking  these  dimen- 
sions it  is  easy  to  run  the  sheep  into  the  vat  in 
groups  just  sufficient  to  fill  each  of  the  drain- 
ing pens  desired.  The  gates  between  the  catch- 
ing pens  are  sliding  so  that  the  sheep  may 
readily  pass  through  from  one  to  the  other.  The 
second  catching  pen,  or  the  one  nearest  the  dip- 
ping pen,  is  floored,  as  this  tends  to  keep  the 
feet  of  the  sheep  clean  just  before  they  enter  the 
dip.  The  dipping  vat  is  12'  long,  41/2'  deep, 
20"  wide  at  the  top  end  and  6"  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom. 

The  vat  holds  about  125  pails  of  water  with 
the  dip  required  to  give  the  fluid  the  needed 
strength.  It  is  sufficient  to  dip  about  125  sheep. 
This  is  allowing  more  fluid  than  is  generally 
stated  to  be  sufficient,  but  it  is  better  to  use 
this  amount  and  thereby  clean  the  fleeces  thor- 
oughly. This  amount  may  be  used  in  dipping 
sheep  that  have  their  fleeces  about  half  grown. 
If  the  dipping  is  done  shortly  after  shearing 
much  less  dip  will  be  required. 

For  the  comfort  of  the  sheep  it  is  advisable 
to  choose  a  day  that  is  not  too  warm,  and  care 
should  be  observed  also  in  driving  the  sheep  and 
penning  them  in  that  they  do  not  become  over- 
heated. In  passing  them  through  the  dip  haste 
should  be  avoided.  They  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  as  long  as  possible  in  the  draining-pens. 
This  is  better  for  the  sheep,  saves  dip  and  les- 
sens the  danger  of  poisoning  afterwards.  There 
have  been  cases  where  the  sheep  have  died 
through  eating  grass  on  which  they  have  been 
allowed  to  run  before  they  have  become  thor- 
oughly dry.  Then  if  the  sheep  are  turned  out 
too  hurriedly  from  the  draining-pens  and  the 
sun  is  very  warm  it  will  dry  out  the  fleece  and 
add  to  its  harshness. 

This  dipping  vat  is  best  for  a  flock  of  about 
200  sheep.  For  a  larger  number  it  would  be 
preferable  to  make  the  vat  longer  so  that  more 
dip  could  be  put  in  and  more  sheep  run 
through.  It  is  easy,  however,  to  dip  as  many  as 
500  sheep  with  this  vat,  but  more  thorough  dip- 
ping can  be  given  by  having  the  vat  considerably 
longer.     In  that  case  the   yards   and   draining- 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


297 


pens  should  be  enlarged  so  that  the  sheep  could 
be  run  through  in  larger  groups.  It  would 
seem  that  for  dipping  sheep  on  an  extensive 
scale  it  would  be  an  advantage  to  have  the  vat 
double,  so  that  the  sheep  could  turn  when  they 
got  to  the  end  and  swim  back  and  go  out  near 
the  point  of  starting.  This  long  swim  would 
cleanse  the  fleece  thoroughly. 

For  a  farm  flock  a  small  dipping  plant  of 
this  kind  is  admirably  adapted,  but  it  would  be 
a  more  economical  arrangement  for  several  to 
combine  and  make  a  plant  for  this  purpose. 

A  CEMENT  TANK  AT  THE  MINNESOTA  COLLEGE, 

In  1903  a  cement  dipping  tank  was  built  at 
the  University  Farm.  The  location  chosen  was 
at  the  end  of  the  piggery,  close  enough  that  the 
wall  could  be  used  in  place  of  a  fence  on  one 
side.  The  alley  of  the  piggery  is  used  for  a 
catching  pen  and  a  hurdle  or  loose  door  com- 
pletes the  run  from  catching  pen  to  tank.  The 
cover  of  the  tank  answers  for  the  floor  of  the 
dripping  pen.  Hurdles  set  up  around  this  floor 
readily  form  a  dripping  pen  large  enough  for  a 
small  flock  of  sheep. 

In  excavating  for  the  tank,  the  dirt  was  re- 
moved accurately  so  that  the  tank  would  be  true 
and  level  when  finished.  The  sides  of  the  tank 
were  built  up  about  9"  above  the  level  of  the 
ground  by  using  brick  discarded  from  the  hog- 
house  walls  when  that  was  built.  (See  Fig. 
538.)  Small  stones  would  answer  as  well  when 
at  hand.  The  object  in  building  it  up  9"  above 
the  ground  level  was  to  provide  good  drainage 
away  from  the  tank  and  to  keep  surface  water 
from  flowing  into  it.  The  earth  shoveled  out 
of  the  hole  was  graded  up  back  of  this  4"  brick 
wall  to  the  top  of  the  tank.     This  hole  when 


finished  and  ready  for  cementing  was  3'  wide 
and  13'  3"  long  at  the  top;  at  the  bottom, 
1314"  wide  by  6'  6"  long;  depth  of  the  hole 
from  level  of  ground,  3'  3".  When  finished, 
the  dimensions  were  2'  6"  wide  and  12'  2"  long 
on  top;  10"  wide  and  6'  2"  long  on  the  bottom. 

The  tank  is  large  enough  to  dip  yearling  cat- 
tle successfully.  For  sheep  and  hogs  alone,  the 
dimensions  could  be  modified  to  advantage — 15' 
on  top  and  2'  6"  in  width  would  be  preferable  for 
outside  dimensions,  giving  when  finished  a  tank 
14'  by  2'  and  3'  9"  deep. 

Reasonable  accuracy  was  observed  in  plaster- 
ing the  cement  to  insure  a  good  piece  of  work 
and  to  have  the  tank  true.  The  work  was  done 
by  two  young  men  without  experience  in  han- 
dling cement,  in  about  10  hours,  after  hauling 
the  sand  and  cement  and  getting  the  tools  to- 
gether. The  tank  has  now  stood  through  three 
winters  and  is  better  than  when  built. 

DIPPING  SHEEP  ox  THE  FARM. 

A  successful  sheep  breeder  furnishes  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  the  concrete  dipping  tank 
shown  in  Fig.  539:  "Our  old  dipping  vat  was 
of  wood.  It  had  a  cage  that  was  lowered  into 
the  vat  by  a  windlass,  and  the  lambs  were  then 
drawn  out  and  drained.  It  was  very  hard  to 
use  and  by  no  means  easy  on  the  lambs.  We 
constructed  one  of  concrete,  and  it  suits  almost 
perfectly.  The  tank  is  a  small  one,  4'  long 
on  the  bottom,  14'  on  top,  4'  deep,  18"  wide 
at  top  and  6"  at  bottom.  Therein  is  our  one 
mistake ;  it  is  too  narrow  at  the  bottom.  Widen 
it  to  12"  at  the  bottom,  leaving  the  top  18" 
and  it  will  be  perfect.  As  it  is,  now  and 
then  a  very  wide  lamb  finds  it  too  narrow  when 


Cl.'A*."'' .1  CORR&t. 


FIG.    538.       CEMENT   TANK  AT  THE    MINNESOTA  COLLEGE   FARM. 


298 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


the  dip  is  used  out  so  that  it  is  low  in  the  tank. 
Such  a  tank  is  not  costly.  Ours  took  about  3i/^ 
barrels  of  cement  and  two  days'  time  to  build, 
counting  the  work  of  excavation  and  form  con- 
struction.   It  will  last  practically  forever. 

"Unfortunately  we  did  not  at  the  time  build 
a  concrete  draining  pen,  but  used  the  old  wooden 
one  which  is  3'  wide  and  12'  long.  This  is  al- 
together insufficient  for  rapid  dipping.  We  will 
next  construct  a  draining  pen  about  12'  s(|uare, 
divided  by  a  fence  into  two  parts.  Th<3  sheep 
will  drain  on  one  side  while  the  other  is  filling. 
Unless  sheep  are  thoroughly  drained  dipping  is 
a  costly  operation.  Even  a  well-drained  lamb  of 
large  size  will  take  away  a  gallon  of  dip  in  his 
wool.  If  he  goes  out  too  soon  he  may  take  out 
three  gallons.  We  learned  that  dipping  with 
this  new  tank  is  mainly  a  matter  of  heating 
water  and  mixing  dip.  The  mere  act  of  dipping 
the  sheep  is  not  serious.  One  or  two  men  catch 
the  lambs  and  drop  them  into  the  vat.  We 
learned  that  a  proper  drop  Avas  rather  head  first, 
like  a  diver's  posture,  thus  they  disappear  and 
come  up  completely  immersed.  They  swim  across 
and  walk  easily  up  the  incline  and  into  the  drain- 
ing pen.  Some  that  are  dazed  by  the  unusual 
shock  of  immersion  in  the  dip  bath  may  need 
a  little  help  to  pass  out.  Three  or  four  men 
are  enough  to  work  the  plant  to  its  utmost.  Two 
can  do  it  very  nicely,  if  not  too  many  are  to  be 
dipped  in  a  day.  We  took  two  days,  choosing 
sunny  ones,  and  put  through  about  1,400,  get- 
ting started  about  9  o'clock  in  the  morning  and 


ceasing  at  4.  We  used  a  coaltar  dip,  mixing 
it  1  to  50.  We  kept  the  water  hot  and  softened 
it  with  concentrated  lye.  When  we  put  in  the 
new  concrete  draining  pen  we  will  likely  put  in 
also  an  arch  of  concrete  to  hold  two  large  kettles 
for  heating  water.  Nearby  is  our  concrete  sup- 
j)ly  tank,  filled  by  wind-power.  The  diagrams 
show  the  very  simple  tank  quite  clearly.  The 
gentle  incline  is  easy  to  walk  up.  It  should  be 
rough  at  bottom  and  had  better  have  transverse 
grooves.  The  draining  pen  should  slope  about 
6"  in  12'  toward  the  tank;  12'  x  12'  will  be 
large  enough.  Since  a  pen  6'  x  12'  will  drain 
50  lambs  by  the  time  another  pen  is  full  they 
will  be  pretty  dry.  With  this  simple  cheap 
plant  four  men  can  readily  dip  1,000  lambs  in 
a  day.'' 

WAGON  RACK  AND  STANCHION. 

The  plan  illustrated  in  Figs.  540  and  511  is 
of  a  cattle  and  hog  rack.  As  a  cattle  rack  it  will 
hold  the  most  unruly  and  strongest  cow  or  bull 
in  such  a  position  that  it  cannot  do  any  damage 
to  itself,  the  driver  or  the  wagon.  The  dimen- 
sions are  as  follows:  Use  1"  lumber  for  rack  3' 
high  and  12'  long;  the  top  board  is  9'  8"  long, 
lower  board  12'  long ;  there  is  a  6"  space  between 
boards.  The  upright  side  pieces  or  slats  are  all 
made  of  hardwood.  Slats  A,  B  and  Z>  are  3" 
wide ;  slat  C  1'  wide ;  all  double.  Slat  E  is  sin- 
gle, placed  outside,  3"  wide,  2I/2'  long.  Slat  F 
is  also  single,  placed  inside,  2"  wide  and  16" 


un 


ARCH  FOR  HfATINC  WATER 


CATCHING  PEN 


FIG.    639.       OUTFIT    FOR    DIPPING    SHEEP    ON    THE    FARM. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


299 


long;  this  slat  is  to  rest  on  top  edge  of  wagon- 
box  to  hold  front  endgate  when  used  as  a  hog 
rack.  Slats  are  spaced  apart  as  shown  in  Fig. 
541.  The  cut-out  board  G,  for  placing  on  the 
wagon  seat,  is  slid  in  between  double-slat  D  and 
bolted  to  slats  E  and  F.  Nailed  near  the  top 
on  the  inside  of  rack  and  in  front  of  slat  C  is  a 
hardwood  block  (H)  1/2"  x  18";  it  is  used  to 
prevent  the  stanchion  from  being  pulled  down 
backward.  Ordinary  endgates  and  end  rods  are 
used  for  the  rack  in  either  end. 


The  movable  stanchion  {Fig.  540)  is  made  5' 
high  and  3'  wide  or  inside  width  of  wagon-box. 
Cross-pieces  at  the  top  and  bottom  are  double; 
bottom  ones  are  of  10"  planks  and  top  ones  are 
of  6"  planks.  The  uprights  are  2"  x  4".  The 
two  middle  uprights  are  movable  sideways  at 
the  top  to  open  the  stanchion  and  are  locked  by 
sticking  in  ordinary  iron  pins  between  them. 
For  hauling  cattle  after  the  rack  is  on  the  wagon 
place  the  stanchion  crossways  between  the  racks 
in  the  wagon-box  in  front  of  block  H.  Bolt  it 
down  with  hook  bolts  (/),  running  the  bolts 
through  the  bottom  of  the  wagon-box  and  wag- 
on-box crosspiece  underneath.  Next  bolt  it  side- 
ways onto  the  rack  with  hook  bolts  at  J.  Hook 
bolts  are  1/2"  thick,  12"  long  with  3"  hooks, 
threaded  plentifully.  To  prevent  the  stanchion 
from  being  pushed  down  forward  use  two  stout 
braces  running  upwards  diagonally  from  the 
bottom  of  front  end  of  wagon-box  to  front  of 
stanchion  against  brace  block  at  about  point  K 
{Fig.  540).  For  ugly  and  dangerous  animals 
tie  their  heads  downward,  running  the  ropes 
through  the  bottom  of  the  wagon-box. 

DEVICE  FOR  A  THREE-HORSE  HITCH. 

The  three-horse  hitch  shown  in  Fig.  542  has 
proved  satisfactory  for  hauling  heavy  loads  on 
an  ordinary  wagon.  A  is  an  ordinary  wagon 
tongue;  5  is  a  piece  of  wagon  tire  4"  or  5"  wide 


FIG.     540.       WAGON    RACK    AND     STANCHION. 


FIG.     542.       DEVICE    FOR    THREE-HORSE    HITCH. 

and  about  20"  long  with  a  hole  at  F  to  corre- 
spond in  size  with  the  hole  in  the  tongue.  C  C 
are  strong  iron  straps  fastened  to  the  back  end 
of  the  tongue  with  a  bolt  and  also  to  B  with 


FIG.     541.       -WAGON     RACK     AND     STANCHION      (SHOWING     THE    RACK). 


300 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


strong  rivets.  Drill  holes  through  B  and  the 
straps  C  at  E  and  D,  making  them  8"  from 
the  hole  F.  Countersink  the  hole  F  and  have 
an  iron  pin  to  go  through  B  and  A,  with  the 
head  made  to  fit  and  not  project  any  above  B. 
Put  a  hammer  strap  on  one  of  the  straps  C. 
Now  cut  the  evener  as  long  as  will  work  between 
the  wheels  of  the  wagon,  and  divide  it  in  the 
ordinary  way ;  place  it  on  the  plate  B  and  fasten 
at  either  E  or  D^  as  you  may  desire,  using  a 
bolt  and  hammer  strap ;  use  singletrees  about 
30"  long  and  a  doubletree  to  correspond. 

By  working  the  evener  at  E  or  D  the  middle 
horse  is  placed  far  enough  to  one  side  that  the 
tongue  does  not  interfere  with  it  in  any  way. 
There  is  no  side  draft  to  speak  of,  and  the  plate 
B  keeps  the  evener  balanced  nicely  and  up  to  its 
place  at  all  times.  Use  an  ordinary  neckyoke  on 
the  two  horses  next  the  tongue  and  arrange  lines 
on  the  third  horse  any  convenient  way.  The 
scheme  is  all  right ;  but  one  has  to  get  to  one  side 
to  hitch  or  else  use  an  evener  so  long  that  it  will 
not  work  between  the  wheels.  Take  off  the 
three-horse  evener  and  take  out  the  pin  in  the 
plate  and  it  is  ready  for  an  ordinary  two-horse 
doubletree. 

FOUR  HORSES  WITH  TWO  REINS. 

In  order  to  work  four  horses  abreast  with  two 
lines  it  is  necessary  to  have  two  checks  to  each 
line,  the  main  line,  of  course,  running  to  outside 
bridle  rings  of  outside  horse.     Check  designated 


as  No.  1  (Fig.  543)  connects  with  outside  of 
each  inside  horse's  bridle  ring.  Check  No.  2 
crosses  between  the  two  center  horses,  as  is  usual 
in  driving  only  two  horses.  Outside  horses  are 
cheeked  back  with  short  reins  to  rings  in  the 
hames  of  inside  horses,  thus  crossing  check  No. 
1.  A  cheap  experiment  with  rope  will  reveal  the 
merits  or  demerits  of  this  method. 

AN  EVENER  FOR  FIVE  HORSES. 

Fig.  544  is  of  an  evener  for  five  horses  on  a 
gang  plow,  with  two  as  the  lead  team.  Make 
the  evener  of  ash  or  oak  2"  x  5"  and  20"  long 
from  clevis  to  clevis,  giving  the  lead  team  the 
12"  end  and  the  8"  end  for  wheelers.  Fasten 
an  old  neckyoke  ring  or  something  similar  to 
the  end  of  the  tongue  and  run  a  log  chain 
through  this  to  A  on  the  evener,  using  light 
whiffletrees  for  the  lead  team. 

It  is  desirable  to  use  a  three-horse  evener  for 
the  wheelers;  liave  a  hole  for  the  clevis  in  the 


FIG.     543.       FOUR    HORSES     WITH    TWO    REINS. 


FIG.     544.       EVENER     FOR     FIVE     HORSES. 

center  of  the  evener  and  the  center  horse  will 
pull  against  the  outside  ones.  Such  an  evener 
may  be  bought  at  any  implement  house.  The 
clevis  connecting  this  three-horse  evener  with  the 
20"  evener  at  C  should  be  a  solid  piece  double 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


301 


clevis  which  will  hold  the  three-horse  evener  in 
place  and  not  interfere  with  the  chain. 

If  horses  weigh  less  than  1,400  pounds  each 
it  will  pay  to  use  five  horses  on  a  gang  plow. 
Another  method  of  using  five  horses  with  two  in 
the  lead  is  as  follows :  JMake  an  evener  5'  long, 
giving  the  outside  Avheeler  4',  and  1'  for  the  two 
teams  that  work  against  each  other  with  chain 
and  pulley. 


FIVE  HORSES  ABREAST  ON  A  PLOW. 

Fig.  545  shows  an  evener  to  hitch  five  horses 
abreast  on  a  gang  plow.  It  also  shows  how  to 
adjust  the  reins  on  such  a  hitch. 

A  THREE  AND  FOUR-HORSE  HITCH. 

The  accompanying  sketch  {Fig.  546)  shows  a 
convenient  arrangement  for  making  a  three  and 


PLAN    FOR  5  HORSE   REINS 


HITCHING 5 HORSf 5  ABREAST  TOAGWGPLOyV 


STAPLE 


2)A 


U-i*STRAPS  BOLTED  TO  WHIFFLE  TREE 

FIG.    545.       DRIVING    FIVE    HORSES    ABREAST    OX    A    PLOW. 


302 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


four-horse  hitch.  Change  can  be  made  in  a  few 
moments  by  taking  off  the  singletree  indicated 
by  dotted  lines  and  attaching  a  doubletree  to 
tongue  about  3'  forward  from  doubletree  by  a 
rod  or  a  wire.  If  it  is  desired  to  bring  the  team 
closer  to  the  tongue  this  can  be  done  by  boring 


is  shown  in  Fig.  547.     It  explains  itself, 
straps  are  from  one  bit  to  another. 


The 


FI3.     546.       THREE     AND     FOUR-HORSE     HITCH. 

extra  holes  in  the  long  tree,  as  indicated  by  ar- 
rows and  dotted  lines.  This  arrangement  makes 
a  perfect  evener  for  three  horses  and  can  be  made 
in  a  few  moments. 

A  FOUR-IIORSE  HITCH. 

A  simple  way  of  working  four  horses  abreast 


MULTIPLE  HITCHES. 


A  method  for  working  four  horses  to  a  gang 
plow  is  shown  in  Figs.  548  and  549. 

Let  A,  B,  C  and  D  represent  the  four  horses ; 
G  and  D  are  placed  on  the  pole  P  and  hitched 
the  same  as  two  horses  would  be  to  a  wagon. 
Then  take  the  hitch-rein  J  on  B's  bridle,  run 


FIG.      547.       FOUR-HORSE     HITCH. 


FIG.    548.       MULTIPLE    HITCH. 


it  to  the  ring  in  E  and  C's  hames  and  back  to 
5's  bit  and  tie.  Then  do  the  same  with  A's 
hitch-rein — that  is,  run  A's  hitch-rein  to  .B's 
hame  ring  E  and  back  to  J.'s  bit  and  tie.  Let 
them  be  tied  so  A  and  B  can  walk  the  proper  dis- 
tance from  C.  They  are  now  hitched  so  as  to 
be  turned  to  the  right.  So  they  may  be  turned 
to  the  left,  take  a  line  and  fasten  to  the  near 
side  of  A  and  B's  bit,  then  the  four  horses 
may  readily  be  turned  either  to  the  right  or  left. 
About  the  only  use  for  the  third  line  (on  A  and 
B)  is  in  turning  corners  about  quitting  time,  as 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


303 


tliev  are  liable  to  want  to  go  towards  the  barn. 
Tie  a  loop  in  the  third  line  big  enough  to  slip 
over  the  arm  and  then  one  has  two  lines  to 
handle.  A  good  way  to  use  only  two  lines  is 
shown  in  Fig.  548. 


Let  A,  B,  C  and  D  represent  the  four  horses  as 
in  Fig.  548.  C  and  D  will  be  on  the  pole.  Fasten 
line  L  to  right  side  of  bits  of  C  and  D  and  left 
side  of  bits  of  B  and  C.  Then  take  hitch-rein 
E  on  D's  bit  and  tie  to  backhand  jP  of  C's  har- 
ness, where  the  traces  pass  through.  This  is  to 
keep  D  from  getting  too  far  to  right  or  too  far 
ahead.  Take  J5's  hitch-rein  E  and  tie  to  C  at 
F  same  as  D.  This  is  a  good  way  to  drive  three 
horses.  To  drive  the  fourth  horse  fasten  a  jockey 
stick  J  (a  piece  of  wood  about  3I/2'  long  with  a 
snap  on  each  end)  to  A's  bit  and  B's  harness — 
in  the  buckle  at  the  bottom  of  the  hames  is  a 
good  place.  The  four  can  now  be  turned  either 
to  right  or  left. 

Another  multiple  hitch  is  shown  in  Fig.  550. 
No.  1  is  the  clevis  on  the  end  of  the  plow  beam. 
No.  2  is  the  beams.  No.  3  is  clevis  fastening. 
No.  4  is  the  equalizer  that  is  made  of  a  heavy 
piece  of  wagon  tire  15"  long  with  a  hole  in  each 


2  2! 

FIG.    550.       ANOTHER    TYPE    OF    MULTIPLE    HITCH. 


304 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


SINGLE  TRFES 


CENTER 


CLEVIS 


end  and  one  5"  from  one  end  and  10"  from  the 
other;  this  gives  one-third  of  the  length  to  the 
four  horses,  two-thirds  to  the  two  horses  ahead. 
This  lays  down  flat,  the  long  end  next  to  the  fur- 
row wheel  and  under  the  tongue  and  next  to  the 
furrow  horse.  No.  5  is  a  four-horse  doubletree. 
No.  6  is  a  two-horse  doubletree.  No.  7  is  a  sin- 
gletree and  No.  8  is  a  rod  or  a  chain  running 
from  No.  4  to  No.  6  ahead  of  the  four  horses. 
This  works  just  as  well  for  five  horses  by  chang- 
ing No.  4  to  two-fifths  or  three-fifths  of  the 
length  and  putting  a  three-horse  evener  instead 
of  a  four-horse,  or  No.  5. 

In  a  six-horse  hitch  one  may  drive  with  4 
lines — the  furrow  horse  and  the  third  from  the 
furrow  as  if  there  were  only  three  horses  and 
use  the  lines  on  the  two  outside  ones,  then  tie 
the  fourth  one  to  the  bit  of  the  third  with  a 
hitch  rein  over  his  back  and  tie  this  to  the  fork 
of  the  third  horse's  lines.  Then  the  two  lines 
from  the  lead  horses  make  four  lines  in  all,  but 
a  good  boy  can  drive  them  after  a  few  rounds. 

THE  FIFTH  HORSE  ON  A  GANG  PLOW. 

In  making  an  evener  for  five  horses  (Fig. 
551),  get  a  bar  of  steel  18"  long  and  %"  thick; 
drill  12  or  14  %"  holes  in  a  row  down  the  cen- 
ter; bolt  one  end  of  this  bar  firmly  to  the  draft 
head  of  the  plow,  where  you  have  been  attaching 
the  evener.  To  the  other  end  of  the  bar  fasten  a 
strong  brace  that  goes  back  and  bolts  onto  the 
main  frame  of  the  plow.     This  is  what  is  called 


BOLTED  IN  FRAME 
OF 
PLOW 


FIG.     551.       DEVICE    FOR    FIVE     HORSES    ON    A    GANG    PLOW. 

an  extension  draft  head.  By  shifting  the  hitch 
from  one  hole  to  another  one  will  soon  find 
which  hole  is  wanted  to  pull  from  to  make  the 
plow  cut  as  wished  and  keep  the  off-horse  in  the 
furrow. 

As  to  the  five-horse  evener,  get  a  good  piece 


1  vi> 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


305 


of  white  oak  2"  x  6"  x  74"  long;  2"  from  each 
end,  and  the  same  distance  from  back  edge,  bore 
%"  holes  for  the  clevis  pins;  these  will  be  just 
70"  apart.  Now,  2"  from  the  front  edge  and 
28"  from  one  hole  and  42"  from  the  other,  bore 
holes  for  (so-called)  center  clevis,  which  attaches 
the  evener  to  the  bar  of  extension  draft  head. 
To  the  short  end  of  this  five-horse  evener  fasten 
a  three-horse  evener,  and  singletree ;  to  the  other 
end  attach  an  ordinary  two-horse  doubletree  and 
two  singletrees.  The  horse  on  the  extreme  left 
is  the  fifth  horse.  Fasten  him  to  the  fourth 
horse  with  a  jockey  stick  and  coupling  strap. 

A  THREE-HORSE  DOUBLETREE. 

The  sketch  {Fig.  552)  is  of  a  three-horse 
doubletree  to  work  with  a  tongue.  It  is  simple, 
easy  to  make  and  gives  satisfaction.  The  draw- 
ing explains  itself. 

HITCHING  FOUR  HORSES  ABREAST. 

The  sketch  {Fig.  553)  shows  how  to  drive  four 
horses  with  a  pair  of  common  check  lines.  This 
arrangement  will  work  equally  well  with  three, 


back  while  feed  is  put  in.  ^  is  a  1"  x  2"  cleat 
nailed  on  front  of  post  to  keep  A  in  place,  cut 
with  slope  on  back  side  as  shown  at  E,  so  that 
A  may  have  free  play  when  the  gate  is  pushed 


FIG.  553.   HITCHING  FOUK  HORSES  ABREAST. 


four,  five  or  six  horses.  The  adjustable  straps 
should  have  a  snap  on  each  end  and  a  buckle  in 
the  middle. 

A  VIRGINIA  HOGPEN  FRONT. 

The  drawing  {Fig.  554)  is  of  a  pigpen  front. 
Posts  are  shown  at  each  end  and  constitute  a  part 
of  the  fence.  .4  is  1"  x  6"  top-board  of  gate, 
and  extends  across  posts.  B  B  B  are  1"  x  6" 
uprights  and  should  be  on  the  inside.  C  C  C  C  C 
are  1"  x  6".    D  is  a  small  prop  to  hold  the  gate 


FIG.      554.       VIRGINIA     HOGPEN      (FRONT). 

back.  F  at  left  top  is  a  strip  of  steel  roofing 
nailed  down  to  posts  and  across  A  to  keep  pigs 
from  hoisting  the  gate.  H  is  a  spike  driven  in 
the  post  behind  A  to  keep  the  gate  in  place.  I 
shows  a  section  of  a  board  which  should  extend 
the  full  length  of  trough  and  stand  2"  above 
the  trough.  This  board  is  used  only  in  front 
to  keep  the  gate  from  going  forward. "  The  half- 
length  board  J  at  left  bottom  is  omitted  in 
building  the  gate.  It  is  only  added  in  the  cut  to 
show  how  the  gate  appears  when  dropped  ready 
for  pigs  to  eat.  The  gate  should  be  hung  about 
1"  forward  at  top.  This  will  insure  it  to  drop 
in  place  when  the  prop  is  removed. 

BREEDING  BOX  FOR  SWINE. 

The  dimensions  of  the  box  {Fig.  555)  are: 
length.  5'  6",  width  2'  and  height  3'.  The 
length  of  the  short  box,  which  may  be  made  by 
moving  the  end  board  j  into  the  slot  k,  is  3'  6". 
The  corner  posts  are  2"  x  4"  scantling  and  the 
sides  1"  X  4"  strips;  a  a  a  are  joists  for  nailing 
the  floor  to ;  &  ft  extra  boards  to  which  the  joists 
are  nailed  to  stiffen  the  sides  of  the  box;  c  c  are 
boar  supports  which  hold  the  boar's  weight  dur- 
ing service.  The  one  on  the  left  is  stationary, 
while  the  one  on  the  right  is  adjustable  to  the 
size  of  the  sow  and  should  fit  up  tight  against 
her  side ;  cZ  is  a  piece  used  to  adjust  the  right- 
hand  support ;  e  is  a  pin  which  holds  the  sup- 
port in  place ;  /  is  a  strip  to  hold  d  in  the  groove 
or  mortise;  the  gr's  (of  which  there  are  six)  are 
pieces  that  hold  the  supports  solid  and  are  13" 
in  length ;  /i  is  a  wooden  screw  to  hold  the  front 
end  of  the  adjustable  support  in  place;  i  is  a 
%"  rod  which  is  placed  behind  the  sow  to  keep 
her  from  backing  out  of  the  box ;  j  is  a  movable 
end  board  which  is  used  to  adjust  the  box  to 
different  length  sows.  When  long  sows  are  to 
be  bred  the  board  is  placed  in  the  end  of  the  box, 
as  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  when  the  short 


306 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


FIG.    555.       BREEDING    BOX    FOR    SWINE    (SHOWING    CONSTRUCTION). 


CROTCH       SUPPORT  ^-^r^ 

iHOwn   IM  JoTTtO  tinrs  BELOW 


FIG.    556.       BREEDING    CRATE    FOR    SWINE     (IMPROVED    TYPE). 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


307 


SOWS  are  bred  the  board  is  removed  and  placed 
in  the  slotted  board  k.  L  L  are  cleats  which 
hold  the  bottom  end  of  the  board  j  in  place;  m 
is  a  platform  used  to  raise  a  small  boar  high 
enough  to  serve  a  large  sow. 

IMPROVED  HOG  BREEDING  CRATE. 

Fig.  555  shows  a  type  of  breeding  crate  that 
has  been  used  for  many  years.  Fig.  556  shows 
an  improved  type.  Instead  of  the  adjustment 
for  long  and  short  sows  being  handled  from  the 
front  of  the  crate  that  end  is  made  stationary. 
Put  in  lower  side  boards  10"  high,  through  which 
holes  are  bored  at  convenient  intervals  C  C  C  C 
C  C  to  admit  the  iron  rod  B,  wiiich  should  pass 
close  under  the  hams  of  the  sow  just  above  the 
hocks.  The  proper  hole  to  use  is  determined  by 
the  size  of  the  sow.  A  crotch  support  A  is  added 
with  a  notch  in  it  which  passes  between  the 
sow 's  hind  legs  and  rests  on  the  retaining  rod,  as ' 
shoW'U.  This  is  2"  x  4"  x  3'  long,  and  the 
upper  edges  are  rounded  off  smooth,  so  as  not 
to  injure  the  sow.  The  side  supports  for  the 
boar  E  are  made  adjustable  by  hinging  to  one  of 
the  cross  slats  in  front  and  are  raised  or  lowered 
from  the  back  by  means  of  a  chain  O  which 
passes  over  the  top  of  side  board,  and  fastens 
to  a  pin  or  heavy  nail  G.  Put  a  chain  on  for 
each  support.  Two  4"  boards,  6"  apart,  should 
be  nailed  over  the  top  of  the  crate  above  where 
sow's  head  comes  to  prevent  her  from  climbing 
out. 

An   Indiana   swine   breeder,    commenting   on 


Fig.  556,  says:  "I  submit  a  sketch  (Fig.  557) 
of  a  breeding  crate  I  make  and  use  very  suc- 
cessfully, and  it  costs  so  little  any  farmer  using 
a  large  boar  should  make  and  use  one.  I  always 
use  a  wood  rod  to  hold  the  sow  in  the  crate  (a 
piece  of  broken  fork  or  hoe  handle  answers),  as 
an  iron  rod  is  apt  to  injure  the  boar,  should  he 
drop  down,  especially  in  very  cold  weather.  I 
think  this  crate  more  convenient  than  the  one 


FIG.      558.       SECTION     OF     FIG, 


shown  in  Fig.  556.  Following  are  the  specifi- 
cations: A  is  the  bottom,  4'  6"  x  30".  B  is 
the  rear  end,  3'  high.  C  is  a  stationary  side 
showing  foot  rest  4"  wide  and  2"  thick  to  hold 
weight  of  boar.  It  is  raised  18"  at  the  rear  and 
17"  in  front,  rounded  off  at  the  front  for  easy 
access.  Z>  is  a  movable  side,  duplicate  of  the 
other,   with  staples  F  to  hold  it   at   different 


FIG.    557.       ANOTHER    IMPROVED    TYPE    OF    BREEDING    CRATE    FOR    SWIXE. 


308 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


spaces  in  notches  E  E.  G  is  an  adjustable  plat- 
form for  raising  or  lowering  the  boar.  JNIovable 
sides  must  always  fit  against  the  sow  when  she  is 
in,  but  widen  out  at  the  front  to  admit  her. 
The  crate  should  be  set  against  a  fence  or  a 
wall  and  near  a  gate  to  the  boar's  lot  so  that 
when  he  gets  down  he  turns  right  into  the 
gate.  Use  hurdle  (a  light  low  panel)  to  drive 
the  sow  in. " 

BREAKING  A  HALTER  PULLER. 

The  two  cuts  (Fig.  559)  show  how  to  break 
a  halter-pulling  horse.  First  take  a  %"  rope 
18'  or  20'  long,  double  it  in  the  middle,  put 
under  the  tail,  cross  it  on  the  back,  put  the  ends 
through  the  halter  nosepiece  and  tie  to  a  firm 


post  or  manger.  Then  go  in  front  of  horse  and 
with  your  hat  or  something  that  will  scare  him 
make  him  pull  back.  After  a  few  attempts  he 
M'ill  stop  and  you  cannot  make  him  pull  on  the 
rope.  He  may  forget  it,  so  it  is  best  to  carry  a 
rope  and  when  you  tie  him  on  the  street  tie  him 
in  this  way.  It  is  a  good  way  to  break  a  colt 
to  lead  and  to  stand  tied.  If  a  colt  is  disposed 
to  be  stubborn,  use  the  rope,  tying  him  to  the 
hame  ring  of  a  good  steady  horse  and  lead  him 
around  in  that  way.  He  may  kick  a  few  times, 
but  will  soon  come  to  time.  Another  way  is  to 
run  the  halter  rope  through  a  ring  on  a  post  or 
a  manger,  and  tie  the  end  to  the  front  foot. 

Another  method  is  thus  explained:  "Get  a 
i/>"  rope  14'  long,  make  a  lasso  or  sliploop  at 
one  end.     Put  a  surcingle  on  the  horse,  also  a 


FIG.     559.       BREAKING    A    HALTER-PULLING    HORSE. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


309 


halter  without  any  lead  strap ;  place  the  horse 
in  a  narrow  stall  with  the  sliploop  around  his 
body  at  the  flanks  with  a  knot  under  the  belly, 
and  bring  the  loose  end  forward  over  the  sur- 
cingle, between  the  front  legs,  up  through  the 
ring  of  the  halter,  down  through  the  tie-hole  in 
the  manger  without  tying  and  back  to  the  ring  in 
the  halter  and  tie  there.  This  pulls  on  the  halter 
and  on  the  loin,  and  a  horse  can  stand  very 
little  there.  Get  in  front  of  him  and  make  him 
pull  back  a  few  times  until  he  will  not  try  to 
pull  back  any  more,  and  then  your  horse  is 
broken  of  this  dangerous  habit. 

MAKING  A  ROPE  HALTER. 

The  accompanying  illustration  {Fig.  560) 
sliows  how  to  make  a  simple  rope  halter.  All 
that  is  required  to  make  it  is  a  piece  of  rope  and 
a  marlin  spike.  First  decide  on  the  length  of 
the  nosepiece.  Then  splice  a  loop  in  one  end 
of  it  as  shown.  Next  at  the  spot  marked  for 
the  other  end  of  this  piece  raise  one  strand  of 
the  rope  and  push  the  end  without  the  loop  in 
it  through,  knotting  as  shown,  then  draw  tight, 
leaving  the  second  loop,  which  is  also  shown. 
Run  the  free  end  of  the  rope  up  over  the  head, 
through  the  spliced  loop  which  comes  on  the  off 
side,  and  then  below  the  chin  and  through  the 
knotted  loop  on  the  near  side.  This  halter  will 
fit  any  kind  of  a  head  and  may  be  changed  to 
suit  by  loosening  the  knotted  loop  and  shorten- 


ing the  nosepiece.  This  halter  may  also  be 
made  by  forming  the  loops  by  wrapping  them 
into  shape  with  twine,  but  halters  so  made  are 
not  so  satisfactory  as  the  kind  shown  for  the 
reason  that  twine  wears  out  after  awhile.  Still 
for  those  who  cannot  splice  a  loop  into  the  end 
of  the  rope  the  wrapping  scheme  must  serve. 

Another  type  of  rope  halter  is  shown  in  Fig. 
561.  It  is  made  without  cutting  the  rope.  The 
knots  are  not  objectionable  when  properly  made. 
This  halter  can  be  made  without  tools  and  as 


FIG.    561.       ANOTHER    TYPE    OF    ROPE    HALTER. 

quickly  unmade.  It  is  perfectly  adjustable  and 
can  be  fitted  to  calf  or  cow  in  a  minute  from  a 
straight  rope. 

PREVENTING  COWS  FROM  SUCKING. 

The  device  shown  in  Fig.  562  nine  times  out 
of  ten  will  cure  cows  from  sucking  themselves  or 
others.  Put  it  in  the  cow's  nose  and  with  a  pair 
of  large  blacksmith  pinchers  close  it  enough  to 
prevent  its  coming  out.  To  remove  it  run  the 
handles  of  the  pinchers  through  the  ring  and 


FIG.    560.       ROPE    HALTER. 


FIG.     562.       DEVICE     FOR     SELF-SUCKING     COW. 


310 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


spread  it.  Smaller  ones  can  be  made  for  calves 
and  heifers.  A  blacksmith  can  make  one  of 
these  devices  in  a  short  time  at  small  cost. 

DEVICE  FOR  SELF-SUCKING   COWS. 

Cows  addicted  to  the  habit  of  sucking  them- 
selves should  be  taken  in  hand  as  soon  as  they 
are  known  to  be  self-suckers.  The  longer  the 
habit  remains  unchecked  the  more  difficult  it 
will  be  to  effect  a  cure.  The  only  cure  is  some 
sort  of  a  device  to  be  worn  by  the  cow.     (See 


FIG.      563.       ANOTHER     DEVICE     FOR     SELF-SUCKING     COWS. 


Fig.  563.)  C  shows  the  form  to  make  canvas 
bag.  A  piece  of  iron  is  riveted  on  front  belt 
to  fit  over  back  to  keep  harness  from  slipping  to 
one  side.  B  shows  snap  at  rear  end  of  canvas 
bag.  A  shows  ring  which  is  fastened  on  front 
belt  to  hold  bag  forward  while  milking  in  sum- 
mer.   Harness  is  made  of  1"  leather  straps. 

A  YOKE  FOR  SELF-SUCKING  COW. 

A  device  to  break  self-sucking  cows  is  de- 
scribed as  follows :  A  is  the  straps  32"  long  to 
be  buckled  around  the  cow's  neck.    B  represents 


/\ 


BUCKLE 


BUCKLE 


A 


if 


V 


/\ 


V 


A. 


A/HI 


V 


A 


EdAK 
flVEH 


V 


CO 


"A  rope  is  passed  over  the  hip,  down  in  front  of 
the  udder  and  drawn  tolerably  tight  and  tied." 
The  objection  would  be  that  injury  might 
happen  to  the  mammary  veins  running  forward 


FIG.     565.       ROPE    FOR    SELF-SUCKINO    COWS. 


from  the  udder.  These  veins  remove  the  blood 
that  comes  from  the  arteries  to  the  udder  and 
have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  supply  of 
blood  from  which  milk  is  elaborated. 


/\ 


SLATS   1- 


TO 


v 


KJ 


FIG.     566.       BREAKING    SELF-SUCKING    COWS. 

A      A      A      A     /N 


LONG 


JTfAPS 


IVIOC 


V 


v 


\/ 


V 


STRAP  32  L0N(5 


STRAP  32^1086 


V 


FIG.     564.       YOKE    FOR     SELF-SUCKING     COWS. 


the  slats  to  be  riveted  to  the  straps.  The  slats 
should  be  11"  long  and  1"  wide.  The  slats 
should  be  made  of  well-seasoned  white  oak  and 
should  be  placed  at  the  distance  of  li/o"  apart. 
There  should  be  eleven  slats  in  all.  {Fig.  564.) 
Another  device  {Fig.  565)  is  thus  described: 


A  New  York  farmer  says:  "We  had  a  man 
who  tried  the  same  plan  and  forgot  to  take  the 
rope  off  the  heifer,  with  the  result  that  she  was 
nearly  ruined  for  future  use  in  the  dairy  and 
for  more  than  a  week  could  not  walk  without 
hitching  her  hind  legs  along,  and  I  would  not 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


311 


want  anyone  to  try  this  method  on  a  cow  that 
he  cared  anything  about,  as  it  is  not  only  dan- 
gerous but  rather  inhuman.  Fig.  566  shows  an 
arrangement  that  is  not  nearly  so  dangerous.  The 
rope  or  strap  is  placed  just  above  the  hock  on 
the  right  hind  leg  and  from  there  it  is  placed  just 
below  the  hock  on  the  left  hind  leg,  and  in  this 
manner  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  animal  to 
raise  her  leg  on  the  side  of  the  man  who  is  milk- 
ing her.  We  have  hardly  ever  found  it  neces- 
sary to  strap  any  of  our  cattle  unless  they  had 
sore  teats." 

JACK  PIT  FOR  RANGE  MARES. 

There  are  a  number  of  devices  for  such  work. 
But  preferable  for  gentle  mares  are  the  breed- 
ing hopples,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds 
manufactured. 

A  pit  can  be  constructed  by  making  a  chute 
with  panels  high  up  {Fig.  567),  and  can  be  put 
on  hinges  at  the  posts  A,  and  when  the  mare 


FIG.      567.       JACK     PIT     FOR     RANGE     MARES. 


is  put  in  these  can  be  lifted  around  out  of  the 
way.  When  the  mare  is  in  with  the  slats  in 
front  at  C,  and  the  slat  behind  at  B,  with  the 
planks  made  strong  and  close  together  and  wider 
at  the  top,  then  the  jack  may  not  be  hindered.  In 
case  the  mare  is  inclinejd  to  lie  down  put  two 
slats  under  her  at  D  and  E  and  when  the  service 
is  over  remove  slats  at  C  and  if  slats  D  and  E 
are  in  remove  them  and  let  the  mare  out  and 
the  place  is  ready  for  another. 

ANCHORING  A  BARN  TO  GROUND. 

To  anchor  a  barn  to  the  ground  by  means  of 
concrete  blocks  is  quickly  and  cheaply  done  by 


means  of  the  wooden  form,  a  frustum  of  a 
pyramid,  or  a  pyramid  with  the  top  cut  off.  It 
may  be  12"  square  on  top,  24"  square  at  the 
bottom  and  36"  high,  imbedded  in  the  ground, 
according  to  the  lay  of  the  land,  about  24"; 
holes  being  dug  at  exactly  the  right  places  and 
to  the  right  depth  the  form  is  accurately  placed 
(this  is  better  done  by  the  head  carpenter)  and 
the  block  built  by  ramming  in  concrete.  Two 
bolts  are  imbedded  in  the  concrete;    they  may 


FIG.     568.       ANCHORING    BARN     TO    THE    GROUND. 

well  be  flat  strips  with  the  lower  ends  turned 
over  and  at  the  upper  ends  holes  drilled  to  re- 
ceive %"  bolts  transversely.  These  iron  strips 
must  be  •  accurately  placed  to  make  easy  work, 
and  when  the  building  is  raised  to  place,  the 
post  rests  between  them  and  transverse  bolts  hold 
it  firmly  in  place.     (See  Fig.  568.) 

RACK  FOR  DEHORNING  AND  RINGING. 

The  illustrations  (Figs.  569  and  570)  are  of 
a  rack  for  dehorning  cattle  and  ringing  hogs. 
For  sills  use  three  pieces  4'  long  and  4"  x  4" 
mortised  for  bottom  of  posts  8"  each  side  of 
center  to  allow  the  side  and  bottom  boards  to 
drop  into  place.  Four  posts  4"  x  4"  and  5'  4" 
long  and  two  posts  4"  x  4"  and  5'  8"  long  are 
tenoned  to  sills.  Three  cap  pieces  2"  x  4"  and 
4'  2"  long  are  mortised  at  ends  to  receive  tops 
of  posts.  The  caps  are  of  oak.  One  oak  piece 
in  front  of  the  cap  which  holds  the  stanchion 
is  2"  x  2"  and  4'  2"  long.  The  lower  oak  piece 
in  front  of  stanchion  is  2"x  4"  x  2'  long.  The 
lumber  is  2"  thick  and  7'  long  for  sides.  One 
board,  2"  x  17".  T  long,  is  for  the  bottom.    For 


312 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


stanchions  in  front  one  board  2"  x  10",  5'  6" ; 
one  board  2"  x  10",  5'  2".  For  back  gate,  two 
pieces,  2"  x  12",  4'  4"  long,  cut  sloping  to  fit 
frame.  It  is  put  on  with  hinges  as  shown  in 
the  diagram.  The  gate  is  held  up  by  a  piece 
of  iron  1'  long  stapled  to  the  upper  board  at 
the  side  of  the  frame  to  allow  the  cattle  to  en- 
ter, and  gate  fastens  when  down  with  a  forked 
piece  of  iron  as  shown  in  Fig.  569.  Stanchions 
in  front  are  bolted  at  the  bottom  between  2"  x  4" 


FIG.    570.       RACK    FOR    DEHORNING    AND    RINGING. 


oak  piece  and  sill,  leaving  a  space  up  and  down 
in  front  5"  wide.  Two  and  one-half  feet  from 
the  bottom  of  the  stanchion  slope  out  a  place 
for  animal's  neck.  The  2"  x  2"  oak  piece  is 
bolted  to  side  of  cap  with  blocks  to  allow  the 
top  of  stanchions  to  open  and  close  and  work 
with  a  lever  as  shown  in  Fig.  570.  The  lever 
of  wagon  tire  is  5'  6"  long.  A  %"  hole  is 
punched  in  top  of  lever.     The  second  hole  is 


131/V'  from  top  hole  and  *,he  third  hole  11" 
from  second  hole.  This  lever  is  rounded  at  the 
lower  part  for  a  handle  and  bent,  being  bolted 
between  oak  piece  and  cap  on  corner  of  frame 
through  middle  hole  of  lever.  The  upper  hole 
is  fastened  to  the  left-hand  stanchion  by  two 
iron  straps,  one  on  each  side  of  stanchion. 
These  straps  are  3'  long,  ^"  thick  and  ly^" 
wide.  The  lower  hole  is  fastened  to  the  right- 
hand  stanchion  with  two  pieces  of  strap  iron  14" 
long.  When  the  stanchions  are  closed  bore  one 
or  two  14"  holes  in  post  back  of  lever,  in  which 
use  iron  pin  to  open  and  close  the  dehorner. 
Bore  a  hole  outside  of  each  post  1'  from  the  top 
to  put  rope  around  to  hold  the  head.  Also  spike 
two  wedge-shaped  pieces  outside  of  stanchions, 
as  shown  in  diagram,  to  keep  cattle  from  get- 
ting their  knees  fastened. 

The  experience  of  most  operators  is  that  the 
saw  is  the  best  implement  used  in  dehorning. 
Unless  the  horns  are  taken  off  very  close  they 
will  bleed  badly,  and  unless  they  are  slanted 
with  the  natural  slope  of  the  head  there  will  be 
an  ugly  square  head,  very  unsightly  to  see. 
There  must  be  some  skin  removed  from  the  up- 
per side  of  the  horn. 

A  DEHORNING  CHUTE. 

This  chute  can  ])e  made  any  length  desired, 
boarded  on  the  inside  with  a  space  about  4"  or 
5"  wide,  2V2'  from  the  ground,  that  will  admit 
of  a  bar  to  be  placed  behind  the  steer  after  he 
enters  the  chute ;  24"  to  26"  in  the  clear  is  wide 
enough  for  any  cattle.  Chutes  should  be  at  least 
5'  high.  At  the  end  of  chute  have  two  good 
posts  1  and  2  {Fig.  571)  ;  on  these  posts  at  top 
and  bottom  bolt  two  2"  x  6"  pieces  of  elm,  oak 
cr  any  tough  timber,  2i/>"  apart  (5  and  6).  As 
you  stand  in  front  of  chute  let  5  project  to  the 
right  past  chute  about  15",  and  6  project  about 
8"  to  the  left  of  chute;  bore  a  few  i/o"  holes 
through  5  and  6  to  regulate  size  needed  between 
3  and  4  and  use  iron  pin  for  these  holes. 

In  the  diagram,  1  and  2  are  stationary  posts 
at  end  of  chute;  1  has  3%"  holes  bored  in 
it  and  has  two  iron  pins  driven  in,  projecting 
2" ;  3  and  4,  of  solid  214"  x  6"  material,  stand 
most  of  the  strain ;  3  hangs  from  the  top  and  4 
from  the  bottom ;  7  is  a  bar  that  goes  over  the 
neck,  one  end  under  stationary  pin  in  post  2 
and  other  under  pin  put  in  hole  in  post  1 ;  9  is 
rope  that  goes  over  nose  of  steer,  is  drawn  tight 
and  held  or  tied ;  8  is  rope  that  works  lever  4.  A 
represents  chute  ready  for  steer ;  one  end  of  bar  7 
rests  on  pin,  other  end  on  ground.  When 
steer's  head  is  through  pull  up  4  and  put  pin  in 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


313 


B 


FIG.    571.       DEHORNING    CHUTE    (CONSTRUCTION). 


to  hold  in  place,  take  7  from  under  neck  and 
put  over  neck  and  fasten ;  draw  rope  over  nose, 
and  fasten.  When  horns  are  off  loosen  rope, 
take  bar  7  out  and  let  4  back.  For  small 
cattle  you  need  not  release  3  at  bottom,  but  for 
large  cattle  let  3  back  as  in  C.  Cattle  come 
out  through  the  chute.  B  represents  chute 
closed  with  steer's  head  out  of  chute  between  3 
and  4,  bar  7  in  place  over  neck  and  rope,  9  over 
nose.  Steer  is  now  fast  and  cannot  get  loose. 
About  15  inches  up  on  3  and  4  bore  a  1"  hole 
through  to  work  rope  9  through.  Put  rope 
through  4  from  front  and  through  3  from 
back.  Three  or  four  men  can  dehorn  cattle 
through  this  chute  very  fast. 

The  especial  chute  described  is  25"  in  the 
clear ;  between  5  and  6  about  4'  4" ;  the  chute 
proper  is  about  7'  long.  It  will  hold  a  300- 
pound  calf  or  a  1,500-pound  bull.  It  can  also 
be  used  when  castrating.  Be  sure  pen  is  strong 
enough  to  hold  cattle,  and  do  not  try  to  put 
cattle  direct  from  pen  into  dehorning  chute  prop- 
er, but  have  narrow  alley  leading  up  to  it. 
Put  the  best  man  you  have  at  rope  8  to  work 
lever  4,  and  next  man  to  pin  lever  4  in  place ; 
be  sure  bar  7  is  in  place,  as  in  A,  and  with  7  in 
place  you  will  find  occasionally  a  steer  that  is 
too  fast  for  the  operators  and  goes  through,  tak- 
ing his  horns  with  him. 

A  DEVICE  FOR  HOLDING  HOGS. 

The  device  shown  in  Fig.  572  for  holding  hogs 
by  the  head  while  ringing  is  simple  and  cheap 
in  its  construction  and  easy  in  its  operation — 
so  simple,  in  fact,  that  the  mere  illustration 
furnishes  all  the  specifications  necessary.  The 
uprights  should  be  firmly  set  in  the  ground  and 
the  upper  piece  of  stocks  pinioned  to  the  up- 
right on  a  pivot  at  A.    By  nailing  boards  to  the 


uprights  on  both  sides  in  the  rear  a  small  chute 
may  be  formed  by  means  of  which  the  hogs  may 
easily  be  driven  into  the  "trap." 


FIG.     572.       DEVICE     FOR     HOLDING     HOGS. 

PLAN  FOR  EAR-MARKING  HOGS. 

Figs.  573  and  574  show  a  system  used  by 
A.  J.  Love  joy,  who  thus  explains  it:  "After 
using  different  breeding  records  for  many  years 
we  put  in  a  card  system  for  keeping  records. 
We  index  our  cabinet  by  number  and  give  each 
sow  in  the  breeding  herd  a  number.  For  each 
litter  she  produces  we  fill  out  a  card  giv- 
ing the  number  of  pigs  farrowed,  number  of 
boars  and  sows,  date  of  farrow  and  the  sire  of 
the  litter.  At  the  bottom  of  the  card  we  mark 
on  a  pig's  head  (made  with  a  rubber  stamp) 
the  way  the  litter  is  marked.  When  we  sell 
any  produce  from  the  litter   we   have   to   write 


314 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


INDEX   NO.  (  ) 


BOARS (  )       SOWS ( 


fARROWED 

DAM 


NUMBER 


FIG.    573.       EAR-MARKING    HOGS     (FIRST    SIDK    OF    CARD). 


one  for  the  buyer.  "We  also  have  a  small  pocket 
memorandum  book  showing  the  various  litters 
and  how  marked  which  we  carry  when  we  go  out 
among  the  pigs.  When  a  buyer  asks  how  a  pig  is 
bred  we  look  at  the  ear-mark,  then  refer  to  the 
book  and  have  the  breeding  for  him  at  once. 
In  this  little  book  we  put  the  sow 's  index  number 
so  we  can  refer  to  the  cabinet  when  we  get  back 
to  the  office. 

' '  In  regard  to  marking  pigs,  there  are  two  very 
good  systems  of  marking  by  notches  in  the  ears, 
made  with  a  harness  punch  when  the  pigs  are 
about  two  weeks  old.  One  system  is  where  you 
give  each  litter  the  same  mark.  This  system  we 
advise  where  the  pig  crop  is  large.  It  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Every  notch  of  the  outer  rim  of  the  right 
ear  counts  1 ;  inner  rim  of  right  ear,  10 ;  outer 
rim  of  left  ear,  3  ;  inner  rim  of  left  ear,  30.  For 
the  first  litter  farrowed  we  place  one  notch 
in  the  outer  rim  of  the  right  ear ;  for  the  second 
litter  we  put  two  notches  in  the  outer  rim  of 
the  right  ear;  this  stands  for  two.  For  the 
third  litter  we  go  to  the  left  ear  and  put  one 
notch  in  its  outer  rim ;  this  means  three ;  for 
the  fourth  litter  we  mark  one  notch  in  the  outer 
rim  of  each  ear;  this  means  four;  for  the  fifth 
we  put  two  in  the  outer  right  and  one  in  the 
left — two  plus  three==5.  For  the  sixth  litter 
farrowed  we  put  two  notches  in  the  outer  left; 
this  means  six.  For  the  seventh  litter  we  put 
two  notches  in  the  left  and  one  in  the  right. 


For  the  eighth  litter  we  put  two  notches  in  each 
ear  outer  rim,  making  8.  For  the  ninth  litter, 
three  in  the  outer  ear,  meaning  9.  For  the 
tenth  litter  we  go  to  the  upper  right  ear  and  put 
one  notch  in  that  place ;  this  stands  for  10.  We 
follow  up  the  succeeding  litters  by  a  combination 
of  marks  in  the  same  way.  We  have  found  this 
method  very  satisfactory  for  keeping  the  records, 
and  when  the  breeding  season  starts  we  simply 
take  the  ear-mark  and  the  markings  of  Aviiite 
in  keeping  sisters  from  the  same  litter  identified. 
"The  other  method  for  say  100  pigs  and 
where  one  is  dependent  on  outside  help  to  attend 
to  the  breeders  gives  each  pig  of  a  litter  an  in- 
dividual mark  and  is  as  follows:  The  right  ear 
has  a  notch  close  to  head  which  means  1 ;  in  the 
middle  of  the  outer  rim  it  stands  for  2,  and  close 
to  the  top  it  stands  for  3 ;  just  around  in  the 
inner  rim  means  4  and  in  middle  of  the  inner 
rim  means  5.  The  left  ear  stands  for  just  10 
times  as  much.  Now  for  the  first  litter  far- 
rowed we  start  and  mark  one  pig  with  1  notch; 
that  stands  for  1 ;  tlie  second  pig  we  give  mark 
No.  2;  the  third  pig  No.  3,  and  so  on  up  as  far 
as  the  litter  goes  by  using  a  combination  that 
stands  for  the  number  required.  When  all  of 
that  litter  is  marked  we  start  with  the  next  litter 
where  we  leave  off  and  continue  as  before.  You 
can  mark  up  to  99  pigs  with  not  more  than  4 
notches  in  the  ear  of  any  one  pig ;  then  when  the 
breeding  season  starts  you  can  go  out  and  select 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


315 


DescRiPTiorc 


rARROWEO 


FIG.    574.       EAR-ilARKING    HOGS;-  (REVERSE    SIDE    OF    FIG.    573). 

30  4  5 

\^   LEFT        RIGHT 


50  40 

t   LEFT 


RIGHT 


LEFT 


FIG.     575.       PLAN   TO    IMPROVE    FIGS.    573    AND    574. 


the  SOWS  and  decide  as  to  what  boars  you  wish 
them  bred  to ;  make  out  a  list  and  leave  it  with 
the  man  in  charge,  saying  breed  gilts  Nos.  8, 
11,  23,  25,  30  to  whatever  boars  you  decide  on. 
When  he  puts  a  gilt  in  the  breeding  box  all  he 
has  to  do  is  to  count  the  notches,  look  at  his  list 
and  act  accordingly. ' ' 

Commenting  on  the  foregoing  system  (Figs. 
573  and  574)  an  Illinois  farmer  writes:  "Mr. 
Love  joy's  method  requires  a  little  book  in  case 
one  forgets.  Here  is  a  system  [Fig.  575)  that 
is  easier  to  keep  in  mind.  In  the  lower  part  of 
the  right  ear  are  1,  2,  3,  4.  In  upper  part  of 
right  ear  one  cut  means  5 ;  in  upper  part  of  the 
left  ear  one  cut  means  10;  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  left  ear  one  cut  tells  the  number  20  is  on 
the  animal;  cuts  on  the  lower  and  upper  ear 
left  will  call  30 ;  the  lower  and  upper  right  ear 


316 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


will  be  9,  so  the  animal  marked  that  way  with 
7  cuts  will  be  numbered  39.  This  means  the 
fewest  cuts  and  is  easier  to  remember." 

BULL  STOCKS. 

The  diagram  {Fig.  576)  and  description  of 
stocks  for  securing  a  bull  so  that  his  feet  may 
be  trimmed  or  any  other  operation  performed 
are  herewith  presented.  Probably  most  of  the 
stocks  now  in  use  at  cattle  breeding  establish- 
ments in  the  Central  West  were  patterned  after 


making  the  head  secure.  There  is  only  one  tim. 
ber  across  the  rear  end  of  the  stock,  as  shown 
byC. 

It  is  a  good  idea  to  let  the  animal  stand  awhile 
in  the  stocks  before  drawing  him  up,  and  the 
time  can  be  utilized  in  trimming  off  the  ends  of 
the  hoofs  with  a  chisel.  The  tools  commonly 
used  are  a  heavy  mallet,  an  inch-and-a-quarter 
chisel  and  two  crooked  knives  (right  and  left), 
such  as  blacksmiths  use.  The  bottom  of  the 
feet  often  require  attention  and  this  can  be  done 
best  by  swinging  the  animal  up  and  drawing  the 


FIG.    576.       BULL    STOCKS. 


the  one  built  at  Shadeland  by  the  late  Adams 
Earl.  Such  stocks  are  a  very  great  convenience 
if  not  a  necessity  at  all  breeding  establishments 
where  the  bull  is  accorded  proper  care. 

The  timber  is  pine  or  hemlock,  and  the  floor 
the  same,  3"  or  4"  thick.  This  gives  a  solid 
foundation  to  stand  on,  and  in  some  cases  the 
operator  can  trim  the  feet  to  advantage  while 
the  animal  is  standing  on  the  floor.  The  side 
timber  D  should  be  of  oak;  it  extends  beyond 
the  frame  and  there  are  three  holes  bored 
through  it.  This  is  to  bring  the  foot  back  as 
follows :  Buckle  a  strap  around  the  foot  just 
above  the  hoof  (after  the  animal  is  drawn  up), 
and  bring  the  rope  through  one  of  these  holes. 
This  will  bring  the  foot  on  top  of  D,  and  it 
can  be  tied  there  and  the  bottom  of  the  foot 
pared  off  as  much  as  necessary. 

In  the  octagon  roller  are  hooks  to  which  the 
chains  are  fastened  and  two  holes  are  bored  in 
the  roller  to  hold  iron  rods  used  in  turning  the 
roller  and  drawing  the  animal  up.  The  chains 
are  ordinary  trace  chains,  five  on  each  side.  The 
belt  is  made  with  an  iron  rod  on  each  end  1" 
in  diameter,  and  the  belt  is  fastened  around  this 
with  chains  attached  to  rods.  Use  heavy  leather. 
The  drawing  shows  the  front  of  stocks.  The 
round  sticks  Z  Z  are  removable  from  the  top, 
usually  taking  out  one  until  the  animal  is  led 
in  and  placed,  then  put  the  other  one  in,  thus 


feet  back  and  using  the  crooked  knives.  The 
dimensions  of  timbers  are  as  follows:  A — 6"  x 
6"  by  7'  6";  5—6"  X  6"  by  9'  I1/2" ;  C— 
6"  X  6"  by  4'  IO1/2" ;  Z)— 4"  x  4"  by  9'  1" ;  E— 
6"  X  6"  by  6'  81/2";  ¥—4!'  x  4"  by  2';  X— 
Octagon  roller,  6'  6"  long,  8"  diameter;  size  of 
belt,  2'  11"  by  5'  3";  length  of  chains,  3'  5" 
(five  chains)  ;  Z — Round  oak  sticks;  1%"  in 
diameter  by  3'  8"  in  length  (15"  apart).  Dis- 
tance between  D  and  B  (base)  is  7". 

POULTRY  DRINKING  FOUNTAIN. 

A  simple  drinking  fountain  for  poultry  (see 
Fig.  577)  may  be  made   as   follows:     Place   an 


FIG.       577.       POULTRY      DRINKING  .   FOUNTAIN. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


317 


ordinary  milk-pan  on  a  block  or  shallow  box, 
the  top  of  which  shall  be  4"  or  5"  from  the 
floor.  The  water  or  milk  to  be  drunk  by  the 
fowls  is  to  be  placed  in  this  pan.  Over  the  pan 
is  to  be  placed  a  board  cover  supported  on  laths 
about  8"  long,  nailed  to  the  cover  so  that  they 
are  about  2"  apart,  the  lower  ends  resting  upon 
the  box  which  forms  the  support  of  the  pan.  In 
order  to  drink  from  the  pan  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  fowls  to  insert  their  heads  between  these 
laths.  The  cover  over  the  pan  and  the  laths  at 
the  sides  prevent  the  birds  from  fowling  the 
water  in  any  manner  except  in  the  act  of  drink- 
ing. Where  drinking-pans  of  this  kind  are  used 
it  is  very  easy  to  cleanse  and  scald  them  with 
hot  water  as  occasion  demands.  This  arrange- 
ment can  be  carried  a  little  further  by  placing 
a  pan  or  what  would  be  still  better  a  long  nar- 
row dish,  something  like  a  tin  bread-tray,  on  a 
low  shelf  a  few  inches  from  the  floor,  and  hinge 
the  cover  to  one  side  of  tlie  poultry -house  so  that 
it  can  be  tipped  up  in  front  for  the  removal  of 
the  dish  or  for  filling  it  with  water.  Whatever 
device  is  used  it  must  be  easily  cleaned  and  free 
of  access  to  the  fowls  at  all  times. 

FENCE-BREAKING  BULLS. 

A  block  of  wood  is  screwed  on  to  each  horn 
(see  Fig.  578),  and  a  wire  stretched  from  block 
to  block  and  also  to  the  nose  ring,  as  shown.  So 
long  as  there  is  no  pressure  on  the  wires  between 


pulls  the  nose  ring  upwards,  causing  considerable 
pain.  It  requires  very  few  experiences  to  teach 
the  animal  that  any  misbehavior  on  his  part  is 
attended  by  suffering  to  himself.  In  place  of 
the  blocks  on  the  horns  the  latter  are  sometimes 
bored  through  near  the  point  and  the  wires  se- 
cured. The  blocks  may  also  be  put  on  in  dif- 
ferent Avays,  the  object  being  to  bring  the  wires 
from  the  horns  to  the  nose  away  from  the  head 
and  face. 

A  HOG  SHIPPING  CRATE. 

The  illustration  {Fig  579)  shows  a  strong 
shipping  crate  for  hogs.  It  should  be  well  built 
of  pine  or  other  light  wood.  For  sheep  a  similar 
construction  is  good  but  Y2"  lumber  is  heavy 
enough.  About  16"  wide,  314'  to  4'  long  and 
30"  to  36"  high  are  the  right  dimensions  for  a 
sheep  crate.  If  it  is  to  go  a  long  journey  wire 
in  a  small  tin  pail  on  one  corner,  so  that  the 
sheep  can  be  watered.  One  can  put  a  lot  of 
green  clover  or  grass  in  the  crate  at  the  begin- 


FIG.     578.       FENCE-BREAKING     BULL     DEVICE. 


FIG.     579.       HOG    SHIPPING    CRATE. 


ning  of  the  journey.  Do  not  try  to  feed  much 
grain  nor  to  send  a  bag  of  it  along  unless  a 
very  dilute  chop,  mostly  of  bran,  for  a  short 
period  of  starvation  is  better  than  feeding  by 
expressmen.  A  neatly-l)uilt  crate,  a  shipping 
tag  bearing  the  shipper's  name  and  that  of  his 
farm  will  often  aid  in  selling  stock. 

A  SINGLE  POLE  HAY  STACKER. 


the  ring  and  the  horns  the  nose  ring  is  simply 
held  upwards  without  any  discomfort  to  the  ani- 
mal. Should  the  bull  rush  any  other  animal  or 
attempt  to  get  through  any  fence,  the  pressure 


Fig.  580  shows  a  simple  stacker  that  any 
farmer  can  make  by  having  the  one  pole  20' 
to  30'  long.  The  boom  on  this  will  swing  over 
the  stack  by  leaning  the  main  pole  toward  the 


318 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


stack.  The  trip  rope  can  be  worked  either  by 
the  man  on  the  stack  or  load.  Fig.  581  shows 
what  is  known  in  some  sections  as  the  Crowe 
stacker.     It  will  build  a  stack  fully  25'  high  if 


:^ 


...J/ 


FIG.     5S0.       SINGLE-POLE     HAT     ST-ACKEB, 


18'..: J 

FIG.     58'1.       CROWE    HAY    STACKER. 

needed.  "With  a  little  attention  the  farmer  can 
learn  to  handle  his  hay  and  both  load  and  unload 
his  wagon  and  drop  the  hay  just  where  he  wants 
it. 

A  BOOM  STACKER. 

Fig.  582  shows  a  boom  stacker  which  is  used 
extensively  in  some  of  the  valleys  in  California. 
It  can  be  built  any  size  according  to  the  size 
stack  which  you  want.  The  guy  ropes  are  ar- 
ranged so  that  the  stack  can  be  built  on  either 
side  of  the  stacker  and  the  boom  may  be  used 
on  either  end  of  the  skids.  This  kind  of  stacker 
will  build  a  stack  10'  or  twice  the  length  of  the 
boom  in  length  and  the  length  of  the  boom  in 
width  and  as  high  as  the  mast  and  the  stack 
that  holds  from  50  to  60  tons  of  forage. 


The  explanations  of  the  drawing  are  by  the 
use  of  the  letters.  The  skids,  a,  are  made  of 
plank  (3"xl4")  14'  long  and  7'  wide,  and  the 
braces  leading  to  the  platform  i  are  2"x6" 
and  must  be  well  braced  with  cross  braces  not 
represented  in  the  drawing.  The  platform  has 
a  circular  opening  for  the  mast  3"  wider  than 
the  diameter  of  the  mast,  so  as  to  allow  the  mast 
to  lean  to  the  further  corner  of  the  stack  from 
the  unloading  point  and  held  in  place  by  the 
guy  ropes  h.  This  will  allow  the  weight  of  the 
load  to  carry  itself  to  any  place  on  the  stack 
and  can  be  successfully  used  on  a  windy  day. 


-/'O 


fl   BOOM  STACKER 

FIG.     582.      BOOM     HAT     STACKER. 

The  mast  &  is  made  of  a  telephone  pole  35'  long 
and  sets  on  a  pivot  on  the  skids.  At  the  top 
is  a  wheel  attached  to  the  pole  to  which  the  guy 
ropes  h  are  fastened  and  when  in  operation  the 
guy  ropes  must  be  attached  strongly  to  stakes. 
The  boom  is  made  of  a  lighter  telephone  pole 
24I/2'  long  and  held  in  place  to  the  mast  by 
the  semicircular  piece  e,  and  held  in  position  by 
an  iron  rod  that  goes  over  the  three-cornered 
piece  d,  and  is  raised  by  the  rope  k  according 
to  the  height  of  the  stack.  The  three-ply  rope 
g  is  for  bringing  the  load  in  place  on  the  stack. 
F  is  the  position  of  the  boom  when  the  stack  is 
finished.  This  stacker  can  be  moved  and 
set  very  quickly.  Slings  and  ground  or  rack 
nets  give  the  best  satisfaction. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


319 


Another  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  583.  Lay  a 
30'  telephone  pole  on  the  ground  with  the 
butt  4'  from  the  side  of  the  proposed  stack  and 
about  6'  back  from  the  end  at  which  you  will 
unload,  letting  the  pole  lie  at  an  angle  of  about 
45°  with  the  longitudinal  line  of  the  stack. 
Dig  holes  6"  or  8"  deep  under  butt  of  pole  and 
drive  three  or  four  stakes  behind  edge  of  hole. 


,7/'/-'/Cr><:rr--\\-3^.--~-0.-  \''-mI"'{\  \\\'A 


FIG.     5 S3.       ANOTHER    TYPE    OF    STACKER. 

Thirty-five  feet  each  side  of  the  butt  of  the 
pole  and  on  a  line  with  it  and  parallel  to  side  of 
stack  drive  a  heavy  stake.  Now,  5'  from  top  of 
pole  spike  on  a  heavy  block  to  hold  ropes  up 
and  tie  on  two  ropes  each  about  50'  long.  Do 
not  notch  the  pole  there.  Tie  the  other  end  of 
one  rope  to  stake  No.  1  toward  which  the  pole 
lies,  leaving  the  end  of  one  rope  loose  till  pole 
is  raised.  From  top  of  pole  run  four  strands 
of  No.  9  wire  back  to  a  heavy  stake  (No.  3), 
75'  from  butt  of  pole  and  on  a  line  perpendicular 
to  line  of  other  stakes.  Wire  does  as  well  as 
rope  for  this  tight  guy  and  is  cheaper.  Now  tie 
the  pulley  to  top  of  pole  and  one  to  stake  No.  2. 
Put  in  the  rope,  tie  on  the  fork  and  hitch  up. 


Lift  the  top  of  pole  to  aid  the  horses  in  starting 
it  and  they  can  raise  it  into  place.  Now  tie  the 
loose  end  of  the  last  guy  rope  to  stake  to  which 
pulley  is  fastened.  Adjust  the  guy  ropes  with 
slack  so  that  the  top  of  pole  will  swing  out  past 
end  of  stack  over  load  of  hay  far  enough  so 
that  it  will  not  start  to  swing  back  over  stack 
until  fork  full  of  hay  is  raised.  Then  it  will 
swing  over  stack  far  enough  to  drop  hay  in 
center  of  stack  30'  long.  A  weight  tied  to  the 
guy  rope  next  to  load  of  hay  will  help  in  pulling 
pole  back.  By  tying  a  stick  in  the  rope  a  few 
feet  above  the  fork,  the  pole  will  swing  without 
raising  the  load  to  the  top.  This  is  an  advan- 
tage while  the  stack  is  low  or  when  the  wind  is 
strong.  By  using  a  long  pole  so  that  side  of 
stack  is  kept  clear  of  pole  and  guy  ropes,  this 
derrick  works  very  satisfactorily.  If  the  pole 
rubs  the  stack  it  will  make  it  settle  out  of 
line. 

ONE-POLE  HAY  STACKER. 

Fig.  584  shows  another  type  of  single  pole  hay 
stacker.  Take  a  pole  30'  to  40'  long  and  3 
ropes  60'  to  70'  long.  To  raise  the  pole  put 
on  a  good  load  of  hay ;  put  the  top  of  the  pole 
on  the  load  and  the  butt  in  a  hole  in  the  ground 
about  8"  deep.  Now  put  on  all  the  ropes  and 
the  fork;   stake  the  two  side  ropes  and  pull  the 


STACK 


ROPE 


POU 


ROPE 


ROPE 

FIG.      584.       ONE-POLE     HAY     STACKER. 

pole  up  with  the  team  and  snub  the  rope  with 
the  team  around  a  solid  stake  previously  set. 
Let  the  pole  lean  so  the  fork  will  hang  over  the 
middle  of  the  stack.  The  two  pulleys  are  fas- 
tened with  short  pieces  of  rope  or  chain  on  the 


320 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


pole.  To  build  two  stacks  alongside  of  each 
other  simply  swing  the  pole  over  to  the  other 
side  and  change  the  middle  rope  over  the  stack 
to  the  other  side. 

EETURNING   HAYFORK   TO    THE    LOAD. 

Fig.  585  shows  a  simple  arrangement  of  ropes 
and  pulleys,  by  means  of  which  the  horses  pull 
the  loaded  hayfork  up  into  the  barn  and  return 
the  fork  to  the  load.  The  rope  a  &  c  d  is  the 
regular  hayfork  rope  to  which  the  team  is 
hitched  at  d.  The  small  rope  a  y  d,  which 
passes  around  a  pulley  at  y,  is  tied  to  the  large 


A  SEED  CORN  CRATE. 

Fig.  586  shows  a  seed  corn  crate  suitable  for 
about  76  ears  per  bushel.  The  corner  posts 
1"  X  1"  X  13"  hardwood;  end  slats  top  and  bot- 
tom %"  X  2I/2"  X  11"  hardwood ;  end  slats  mid- 
dle 1/4"  X  21/2"  X  11"  soft  wood.  There  are  12  slats 
for  slides,  top  and  bottom,  i/^"  x  3"  x  30"  soft 
wood.  The  side  slats  are  dropped  i/G'  from  ends 
of  posts  to  make  spaces  between  them  smaller. 
This  crate,  13"  x  11"  x  30",  will  hold  a  bushel 
of  ears  from  9"  to  11"  in  length. 

PROTECTING  STACKS  FROM  WEATHER. 

Fig.  587  shows  a  temporary  roof  of  inch 
boards  for  protecting  stacks,  the  boards  being 
carefully  selected  and  should  have  no  cracks  in 
them  and  well  painted  with  some  light-colored 
paint  and  laid  on  as  shingles  are  laid,  one  lap- 
ping over  the  other,  and  held  by  a  light,  flexible 
chain  at  each  end  and  a  staple.  Have  the  ends 
of    the    chain    attached    to    large    rings    which 


i-Cffys  ^ly  ForA  /fop, 


>»^  ^/ 


Oof^e 


''■<?  T^c^  \^ 


FIG.     585.       RETURNING    HAY    FORK    TO    LOAD. 


hayfork  rope  at  d.  When  the  team  travels  from 
d,  towards  y,  the  hayfork  moves  from  the  load 
up  into  the  barn,  and  when  the  team  returns  to 
d  the  fork  is  pulled  back  to  the  load  by  means  of 
the  light  rope.  The  fork  is  unloaded  with  the 
trip  rope  r  as  usual.  If  the  driveway  is  inside 
the  barn,  a  different  arrangement  of  pulleys  will 
be  necessary. 


CSatf 


slip  over  slender  poles  driven  in  the  ground  and 
with  headless  spikes  driven  in  like  barbs  so  the 
winds  cannot  lift  the  roof.  Bore  one  small  hole 
near  the  lower  edge  of  each  board  so  that  a  wire 
will  tie  the  two  to  the  chain  and  not  injure  the 
board  as  staples  might.  Select  lumber  not  apt 
to  warp  or  spring  and  before  using  paint  it  well 
on  both  sides.  Explanation :  1.  Boards  laid 
lengthwise  of  stacks.     2.  Wire  chain  or  heavy 


CORN 


FIG.      5S6.       SEED     CORN     SHIPPING     CRATE. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


321 


wire  stapled  to  boards.  3.  Iron  ring.  4.  Tough 
slender  posts,  anchored  with  rows  of  headless 
spikes  to  catch  rings  as  stack  settles.  5.  Hooks 
to  connect  with  two  sections. 

CURING  PEAVINE  HAY. 

The  accompanying  engravings  (Figs.  588  to 
590)  from  photographs  supplied  by  the  Ten- 
nessee Experiment  Station  illustrate  a  method  of 
curing  pea  hay.  This  rack  is  made  to  be  taken 
apart  when  not  in  use.     It  affords  a  means  of 


FIG.     588.       RACK    FOR    CURING    PEAVINE    HAT. 


permitting  free  circulation  of  air  through  a 
cock  of  peavine  hay,  thus  greatly  promoting  the 
uniform  curing  of  the  hay. 


FIG.     590.       RACK    FOR    CURING    PEAVINE    HAT. 

DEVICE  FOR  COVERING  STACKS. 

A  simple  and  inexpensive  device  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  hay  put  up  in  ricks  or  stacks  {Fig. 
591)  is  constructed  as  follows:  Use  common 
boards  12'  to  16'  long,  a  foot  or  more  wide,  put- 
ting one  on  top  of  the  rick  first,  then  slipping 
one  on  each  side  under  the  top  one  about  two 
inches  and  fastening  by  driving  a  common  fence 
staple  over  a  No.  9  smooth  wire  just  at  the  edge 
of  the  upper  board  so  as  to  make  a  sharp  bend 


FIG.     589.       RACK     FOR    CURING    PEAVINE     HAT. 


FIG.     591.       ST.\CK-COVBRING    DEVICE. 


in  the  wire  over  the  edge  of  the  upper  board, 
and  so  on  down  as  far  as  wanted;  six  to  eight 
boards  on  each  side  are  generally  enough;  then 
fasten  a  good-sized  stone  in  the  end  of  the  wire 


322 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


and  the  thing  is  finished.  Use  two  wires  to  each 
length  of  board  about  2'  from  the  ends  and  as 
many  sections  as  may  be  needed  for  the  length 
of  rick,  putting  the  middle  section  on  last  with 
the  ends  lapping  over  the  next  ones.  In  using 
the  hay  a  single  section  is  taken  off  by  drawing 
out  the  staples  and  the  rick  cut  down  so  as  to 
leave  the  cover  over  the  remainder.  Boards 
and  wire  can  be  used  over  and  over  again. 

A  PORTABLE  HOG  LOADER. 

A  device  for  loading  hogs  and  sheep  that  is 
very  handy,  light  and  strong  is  shown  in  Fig. 
592.  It  can  be  moved  readily  or  it  can  be  backed 
up  on  a  wagon  and  by  a  rope  or  chain  attached 
to  the  wagon  bed  and  hauled  to  the  distant  pen 
or  lot  where  hogs  are  to  be  loaded.  It  saves 
moving  the    hogs    from    their    fed-lot    to    some 


FIG.    592.       PORTABLE    HOG    LOADER. 

strange  place  or  corner,  which  always  excites  or 
worries  some  of  them.  By  the  use  of  a  hurdle 
or  two  as  many  can  be  cut  out  from  the  drove 
as  will  load  the  wagon,  or  the  chute  and  wagon 
can  be  backed  up  to  the  door  of  house  or  pen 
and  the  hogs  enter  the  wagon  without  any  worry. 
The  cut  {Fig.  592)  represents  one  side  of  the 
chute  set  ready  to  load  into  the  wagon.  It  is 
easily  made.  The  bottom  is  two  12"  boards,  1" 
thick  and  10'  long.  Each  side  has  one  board  of 
the  same  dimensions  and  two  boards  6"  wide 
and  1"  thick,  with  space  of  4".  This  makes 
the  side  2'  8"  high.  The  two  uprights  are  2" 
X  4"  with  a  m.ortise  4"  x  1"  at  top  and  bottom 
to  receive  ties  that  are  tightened  by  a  draw  pin. 
The  lower  ties  support  the  floor  and  are  16" 
from  the  end  of  the  floor  boards,  which  also 
rest  on  the  axle  of  the  old  buggy  wheels  used 
for  moving  the  chute.  A  third  or  middle  up- 
right has  a  slot  cut  in  the  lower  end  large  enough 
to  drop  down  over  the  axle.  By  cutting  the  slot 
4"  deep  the  ends  extend  below  the  axle  3"  and  a 
40-penny  spike  or  wooden  pin  put  through  the 
upright  just  under  the  axle  will  keep  it  in  place. 


The  chute  is  2'  in  the  clear  and  the  bottom 
board  of  the  side  is  nailed  to  the  floor,  which 
helps  to  stiffen  the  floor  and  sides. 

It  will  be  more  convenient  to  make  the  chute 
without  the  middle  uprights,  and  before  locat- 
ing them  place  one  end  of  the  chute  in  the 
wagon  bed  and  the  other  end  on  ground.  Now 
put  the  axle  and  the  wheels  under  the  chute  and 
locate  so  the  axle  will  be  a  support  to  the  bot- 
tom, and  then  drop  the  middle  upright  down 
over  the  axle  and  nail  to  the  side  of  the  chute, 
using  care  to  have  the  axle  at  right  angles  to 
the  bottom,  and  put  in  the  spike  or  pin  to  hold 
the  axle  in  the  slots  of  the  upright.  Cleats 
should  be  nailed  in  the  bottom  to  keep  stock 
from  slipping.  Before  loading  put  straw  in 
the  wagon  and  down  the  chute,  which  makes 
the  hogs  take  more  kindly  to  the  chute. 

In  some  cases  a  cast-off  pair  of  buggy  wheels 
and  axle  hjave  been  used  for  the  chute.  Of  course 
the  axle  must  be  cut  so  the  hubs  fit  neatly  against 
the  middle  uprights. 

PORTABLE  HOG  CHUTE. 

This  chute  is  made  like  a  shed  (see  Fig.  593) 
and  can  be  used  for  hauling  a  hog  a  short  dis- 
tance by  putting  end-gates  in  slides  nailed  in 
for  that  purpose.    The  cut  shows  one  side.    Use 


FIG.     593.       PORTABLE     HOG     CHUTE. 


a  2"  X  6"  x  16',  making  the  runners  6'  9"  long; 
1"  X  6"  and  1"  x  4"  should  be  18'  long  to  cut 
to  advantage.  Cut  floor  boards  2'  long,  and 
nail  them  1"  apart.  The  angle  for  the  end  cut 
and  standards  can  be  found  by  placing  one  end 
into  the  wagon.  Bore  holes  and  use  stay  chains 
to  pull  by.    It  is  light  and  convenient. 

A  FARM  ICEHOUSE. 

In  building  an  icehouse  one  of  the  main 
objects  is  to  secure  isolation  of  the  ice  and  to 
surround  it  with  an  adequate  barrier  of  non-con- 
ducting materials.  To  do  this  a  triple  wall  of 
planks  or  boards  must  be  made  from  12"  to  18" 
apart  and  the  spaces  between  each  compactly 
filled  with  sawdust  or  straw.  The  bottom  must 
be  equally  well  secured  and  a  drain  provided  for 
the  escape  of  water,  yet  not  for  the  admission  of 
air.     The  drain  as  shown  in  Fig.  594  is  one  of 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


323 


the  cheapest  and  best  that  can  be  made.  This 
drain  is  made  by  digging  a  hole  3'  deep  and  4' 
square;  over  this  are  laid  logs  say  Si/o'  long,  1' 
wide  and  6"  thick.     This  permits  the  water  to 


\^\1l\^^     VENTILATION. 


FIG.     594.       FARM    ICEHOUSE     (INTERIOR). 


run  off  the  ice,  but  this  will  not  be  the  case  if  the 
ice  has  been  securely  and  properly  packed.  In 
addition  to  this  drain  is  a  box  17'  long  made  of 
6"  boards  in  which  can  be  applied  whenever 
necessary  a  pump  to  draw  out  water.  Over  this 
box  should  be  kept  a  lid  so  as  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  warm  air.    The  dotted  lines  in  Fig. 

595  show  that  between  the  plank  wall  and  ice  is 
left  a  space  6"  or  8"  on  all  sides  of  the  ice, 
which  is  packed  in  with  straw  or  sawdust,  all 
spaces  or  cracks  between  the  cakes  of  ice  being 
also  filled  in  with  sawdust. 

"When  filling  the  house  5"  or  6"  of  straw  and 
sawdust  are  put  on  the  floor.  The  ice  is  packed 
solidly  on  this.  Experience  proves  that  this  sur- 
rounding of  sawdust  on  all  sides  will  keep  the  ice 
satisfactorily  the  entire  summer.  The  wall  on 
which  the  framework  is  built  is  1'  in  height  and 
is  built  of  brick  or  stone.  This  icehouse  is  12' 
X  12'  and  17'  in  height,  not  including  roof.  The 
house  is  filled  in  front  by  a  door  3'  wide  and  4' 
high.  About  half  of  the  middle  (as  shown  in 
Fig.  594)  of  the  ridge  is  cut  out,  leaving  an 
opening  4"  or  5"  wide,  and  over  this  is  a  cap, 
supported  by  a  saddle  piece  at  each  end  of  it, 
leaving  an  opening  on  each  side  under  it  for 
ventilation.  The  cap  extends  far  enough  over 
to  keep  out  rain.  An  icehouse  of  this  kind  will 
cost  from  $35  to  $60.  The  entire  house  except 
the  foundation  is  made  of  pine  lumber. 

A  CHEAP  ICEHOUSE. 

An  icehouse  to  hold  75  tons  of  ice  should  be 
about  16'  wide,  20'  long  and  12'  high  (see  Figs. 

596  and  597).  If  the  building  is  to  be  located 
upon  high  ground,  a  pit  6'  deep  may  be  dug  and 
2"  X  6"  plates  laid  on  the  bottom  and  the  2"  x  6" 


12  FEET 


I?  FttT 
FIG.     595.       FARM     ICEHOUSE     (FLOOR). 


FIG.     596.       CHEAP    ICEHOUSE. 

Studding  toe-nailed  to  them,  studding  being 
placed  4'  apart.  Plates  are  spiked  to  the  top  of 
the  studs  and  the  outside  covered  with  matched 
boards.  A  door  frame  is  provided  at  one  end 
or  at  both  ends  if  greater  convenience  in  filling 


324 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


is  desired.  The  rafters  need  not  have  more  than 
one-quarter  pitch  but  should  extend  well  over 
the  sides  to  shade  the  walls.  The  roof  may  be 
of  roofing  boards  battened,  or  shingles,  but  should 
be  perfectly  water-proof. 

The  house  is  lined  throughout  with  sheathing 


FIG.     597.       CHEAP    ICEHOUSE. 

and  the  intervening  space  to  the  siding  filled 
with  packing,  sawdust  being  preferred.  The 
house  should  be  provided  with  a  ventilator  to 
allow  the  water  vapor  formed  to  pass  out.  When 
filled  a  foot  of  straw  or  other  packing  should  be 
placed  below  and  around  the  ice  and  a  covering 
of  2'.  The  door  should  be  made  as  near  air-tight 
as  possible. 

The  amount  of  material  needed  will  be  about 
as  follows:  600'  matched  lumber,  340'  2"  x  6" 
studding,  12  rafters  2"  x  6"  x  12',  864'  boards 
for  lining,  480'  roofing  boards  with  battens, 
hinges  and  nails. 


ANOTHER  ICEHOUSE. 

The  building  shown  in  Fig.  599  is  14'  x  16' 
and  10'  high  with  a  10'  wall  which  is  filled  with 
sawdust.  When  packing  the  ice,  place  it  within 
4"  of  the  lining  of  inner  wall  and  fill  the  open 
space  with  sawdust. 

The  building  is  of  native  lumber  with  matched 
board  roof  and  battened.  No  part  of  the  icehouse 
is  under  ground.  The  cellar  is  beneath  the  ice- 
house and  the  entrance  to  it  is  on  the  outside. 
The  cellar  is  6'  x  10'  and  %y.>  high  (i^i(/.  598), 
inside  measurement,  but  can  of  course  be  made 
any  desired  size.  The  top  of  it  is  in  the  form 
of  a  half  circle  or  arch,  the  middle  of  which 
extend-s'  2'  up  into  the  icehouse.  The  walls  are 
of  brick  plastered  over  with  cement.  The  side 
walls  are  8";  those  of  the  arch  4",  plastered 
outside  and  inside  with  cement.  When  building 
the  arch,  a  wooden  support  should  be  used,  which 
is  made  of  6"  fencing  supported  by  a  2"  x  4" 
on  each  end.  Two  of  these  supports  are  required 
placed  about  2'  from  each  end  of  the  cellar  and 
are  covered  with  6"  fencing  laid  lengthwise  of 
the  cellar.  All  of  these  wooden  structures  are 
removed  after  the  brick  arch  is  made. 

A  drain  tile  extends  around  the  outside  of 
the  cellar  and  enters  the  one  which  drains  the 
cellar.  The  outside  cellar  door  is  raised  and 
lowered  by  a  weight  and  pulley.  The  only  ven- 
tilators to  the  cellar  are  three  2"  auger  holes  in 
the  top  of  inner  door ;  these  seem  to  be  sufficient 


FRONT 


REAR 

4  FT.  DOOR 

GROUND  LINE 


FIG.     598.       ANOTHER    ICEHOUSE     (OUTLINE). 


MI  8C  ELLA  N  EO  VS. 


325 


I^FT.WIDE 


^ 


^[>. 


GROUND  LEVEL 


FIG.    599.       ANOTHER    ICEHOUSE     (OUTLINE). 


A  COMMERCIAL  ICEHOUSE. 

The  icehouse  shown  in  Fig.  600  and  601  was 
built  a  few  years  ago  in  Muscatine  Co.,  la.,  by 
W.  ^I.  Lambing  to  supply  a  superior  quality  of 
ice  to  a  limited  number  of  consumers  in  a  near- 
by city.  It  is  36'  x  60'  and  22'  to  the  plates,  6' 
of  this  height  being  below  ground  and  the  re- 


FIG.    600.       COMMERCIAL    ICEHOUSE. 

maining  16'  above.  The  building  holds  about 
1,400  tons  of  ice  and  cost  about  $1,500.  A 
stone  wall  2'  thick  encloses  the  basement.  The 
studding  used  is  2"  x  10",  placed  2'  apart.  Tar 
paper  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  studding, 
forming  a  10"  dead  air  space.  The  floor  is 
made  of  cinders  spread  4"  deep  and  a  4"  tile 
drain  leads  out  from  one  corner,  whicli  is  lower 
than  the  other  corners.  The  inside  lining  con- 
sists of  8"  flooring  put  on  diagonally  and  the 
outside  is  covered  with  8"  drop  siding  nailed  on 
diagonally,  as  shown  in  the  engravings.     The 


FIG.     601.       COMMERCIAL     ICEHOUSE     AXD     LOADER. 

building  attached  to  the  icehouse  contains  a 
6-horsepower  gasoline  engine  which  hoists  4,500 
pounds  of  ice  per  minute  with  the  elevator  shown 
standing  in  the  water. 

SUGGESTION  FOR   SMALL   ICEHOUSE. 

We  do  not  advise  the  placing  of  cooling  rooms 
in  the  icehouse.  The  ice  soon  melts  around  the 
room,  leaving  great  air  spaces  that  cause  the  ice 
rapidly  to  disappear.  Ice  should  be  kept  in  as 
solid  a  pile  as  possible  and  be  taken  out  of  the 
house  only  from  the  top  and  carefully  covered 
up  again.    Better  build  a  home-made  refrigerator 


326 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


by  placing  two  boxes  together,  one  inside  the 
other,  with  two  or  three-inch  space  between  filled 
with  some  kind  of  non-conducting  material  like 
sawdust  or  mineral  wool.  Put  in  galvanized  bot- 
tom inside,  make  deep  enough  to  hold  the  drip 
or  melting  of  the  ice  for  a  day  or  so,  with  out- 
let properly  guarded.  Make  two  doors,  one  for 
each  box  and  reasonably  tight,  the  upper  one 
balanced  with  rope  and  weight.  Make  a  shelf 
in  one  end  to  hold  a  cake  or  more  of  ice.  For 
dimensions  say  about  6'  long  20"  wide  and  deep, 
all  inside  measures.  •  Ice  piled  in  one  end  every 
day  or  so  can  be  readily  available  without  the 
risk  of  letting  out  all  the  confined  cold  air,  as 
would  have  been  the  case  if  we  had  a  room 
under  the  ice  in  the  icehouse.  This  kind  of  a 
refrigerator  is  more  economical  of  ice  than  those 
that  have  perpendicular  doors,  which  as  soon 
as  opened  allow  the  cold  air  to  pour  out.  One 
the  size  mentioned  will  hold  the  milk  for  an 
ordinary  farm  dairy  and  a  lot  of  other  stuff 
placed  on  shelves  above. 

CORRAL  FOR  7,000  ANIMALS. 

Fig.  602  shows  a  plan    for    circular    corrals 
with  a  radius  of  100',  one  a  little  back  of  the 


other,  connected  by  a  gateway  and  also  by  a  nar- 
row lane  or  chute,  in  the  narrowest  part  of  which 
should  be  a  "squeezer"  for  branding  mature 
cattle,  and  a  dodge  gate  opening  into  either  the 
large  corral  or  the  lesser  one.  By  means  of  this 
gate  cattle  are  very  easily  and  surely  assorted 
and  the  squeezer  saves  immensely  in  time  and 
labor  of  branding.  The  small  corral  will  be  used 
also  as  a  horse  corral  and  should  probably  be 
about  80'  in  diameter  for  easy  working.  The 
chute  should  be  of  the  same  width  throughout, 
for  if  it  is  wedge-shaped  there  is  danger  of 
wedging,  but  there  should  be  a  small  pen  at  the 
entrance  of  it  where  a  few  cattle  at  a  time  may 
be  held  and  forced  to  pass  through. 

Strong  fences  run  in  diverging  lines  from  the 
corrals  to  make  it  easy  to  pen  the  cattle,  and 
along  one  of  these  fences  the  dipping  tank  may 
be  built,  with  a  draining  platform  at  the  exit. 

It  is  of  course  very  strongly  built,  with  large 
posts,  at  least  6'  high,  and  boards  perfectly  II/2" 
thick,  especially  along  the  chute.  The  squeezer 
is  simply  a  short  panel  hinged  at  bottom  and 
drawn  together  at  top  by  lever,  rope  and  tackle ; 
two  men  can  with  this  hold  without  injury  the 
strongest  cow. 


C- CHUTE  WITH  DODGE  GATE 
D- DIPPING  TANK 
P- SMALL  PEN  FOR  STARTING 
CATTLE    THROUGH   CHUTE 


FIG.    602.       CORRAL   FOR    7,000    ANIMALS. 


MI8CELLA1<!E0US. 


327 


HORSE-BREAKING  CORRAL. 

Corrals  for  horses  should  be  built  higher  and 
stronger  than  for  cattle,  as  they  run  faster  and 
strike  the  opposite  side  with  great  force  before 
they  can  stop.  A  corral  proportioned  as  50  to 
100  {Fig.  603)  is  easy  to  handle  stock  in.     The 


X 


FIG.    603.       HORSE-BREAKING    CORRAL. 


corners  should  be  made  round  so  that  cattle  can- 
not horn  each  other,  and  have  all  gates  made  in 
the  corners.  The  outside  gates  should  have  a 
wing  extending  as  shown  in  Fig.  603.  The 
foregoing  applies  solely  to  the  range  business 
and  not  to  the  curry-comb  stock. 

A  COLD  STORAGE  HOUSE. 

A  beef  carcass  requires  a  space  about  S^/o' 
wide  and  oi/>'  long,  while  the  average  sheep  and 
hog  carcass  would  together  require  a  space  about 
2'  wide  and  2i/,'  long.    A  refrigerator  designed 


for  neighborhood  purposes  should  have  space  for 
a  meat  block,  lard  cans,  salt  pork  barrels  and 
such  accessories.  The  maximum  space  that 
would  probably  be  required  should  always  be  al- 
lowed, since  it  is  cheaper  to  construct  the  build- 
ing large  enough  in  the  beginning  than  to  en- 
large it  later  on.  A  drawing,  specifications  and 
building  notes  for  a  refrigerator  follow: 

The  drawing  {Fig.  604)  shows  most  of  the 
work  except  the  drain.  As  to  marks  A,  B  and 
C,  A  is  soldered  to  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  C  is 
fastened  to  the  underground  drain.  B  is  the 
trap  and  is  made  to  slip  up  on  A,  thus  freeing  it 
from  C  and  by  turning  it  one-quarter  way 
around  can  be  pulled  down  from  A.  This  will 
enable  one  to  clean  the  trap  and  to  protect  it 
for  winter.  An  underground  trap  gives  trouble 
in  freezing.  Place  the  tile  pipe  for  the  under- 
ground drain  before  the  floor  is  laid.  Be  sure 
to  pitch  the  bottom  of  the  icebox  and  drain  the 
right  way. 

The  ceiling  of  the  room  should  be  about  2" 
higher  on  the  ice  side,  thus  causing  the  heated 
air  to  be  brought  over  the  ice  where  it  will  be 
cooled  and  sent  down,  giving  good  circulation. 
A  trap  door  should  be  placed  in  the  ceiling  also, 
in  case  it  should  be  needed  for  ventilation  and 
circulation.  Make  the  icebox  strong  and  true,  as 
it  will  get  hard  usage.  Protect  the  sides  and 
bottom  with  oak  strips.  Use  care  in  having  the 
air  space  as  complete  as  possible  and  the  paper 
smooth  and  well  secured.  The  entire  inside 
should  be  painted  three  coats,  white,  at  com- 
l^letion  and  have  in  the  last  coat  about  one- 
quarter    varnish.     Paint    the    outside    a    green. 


f^RONT    ELEMP'TIOH 


■:s^CT/ef^    sue w/ A/0 
co^^r/7ocT/ON  or  v/alL,  rcf  s/'^e 


fyVO    ^J-CV/IT'C// 


T 

COL  a  ^rorrfiicc  hou^b 
F-QFf  coo/^eff/\T/u£r  FyrFfnn  usB 


FIG.     604.       COLD    STORAGE    HOUSE    FOR    A    COMMUNITY. 


328 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


Build  in  a  shaded  place  and  face  the  building 
to  the  north  if  possible.  The  window  should 
be  triple  to  make  the  air  spaces  and  put  shades 
inside  to  keep  out  sunlight.  With  care  in  con- 
struction this  house  should  be  dry  and  give  ex- 
cellent cooling  results  with  a  small  amount  of 
ice  and  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  $40. 

THE  VENTILATION  OF  STABLES. 

Climates  differ  so  widely  that  it  is  not  possible 
to  lay  down  a  rule  of  building  that  will  be  per- 
fectly adapted  to  all  situations.  So  also  do 
breeds  differ  in  their  recjuirements.  The  dairy 
cow  should  be  kept  fairly  warm,  yet  she  needs 
abundance  of  pure  air;  the  beef  steer,  heavily 
fed,  cares  little  for  temperatures,  so  he  is  dry 
and  out  of  the  wind.  Horses  need  especially  to 
have  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

Sheep  can  hardly  have  too  much  air.  Being 
of  an  essentially  delicate  organization  they  suf- 
fer severely  from  the  poison  of  each  other's 
breath.  A  good  way  to  ventilate  the  sheep  barn 
is  to  have  on  two  sides  or  more  a  continuous 
series  of  doors ;  that  is,  make  all  the  siding  into 
doors  and  hang  on  hinges.  This  costs  little 
more  than  to  side  up  as  it  is  usually  done  and 
is  profitable  from  many  standpoints.  Let  the 
doors  be  cut  in  two  horizontally,  the  lower  part 
about  3i'o'  high,  swinging  as  a  gate  swings,  the 
upper  part  hinged  at  its  upper  edge  and  lifting 
upwards  like  a  box  lid  so  that  it  is  supported 
by  ropes  with  rings,  or  by  little  braces  hung  on 
hinges.  It  is  advisable  to  put  three  strong 
hinges  on  the  upper  doors  to  keep  them  in  shape, 
and  as  they  will  be  exposed  more  or  less  they 
should  be  of  good  material.  "When  the  weather 
is  suitable  all  these  upper  doors  may  be  open, 
permitting  a  free  circulation  of  air  through  the 
barn,  making  it  practically  a  covered  yard ;  and 
Avhen  storms  blow  one  side  or  the  other  may  be 
closed  and  only  the  lee  side  left  open. 

An  architect  and  builder  of  stables  says  that 
"if  possible  there  should  be  a  continuous  but 
narrow  opening  high  up  so  arranged  that  the 
stablemen  cannot  conveniently  close  it."  This 
should  not  be  on  the  north  or  west  side,  but  on 
sheltered  sides.  Draughts  on  the  horses  are 
sources  of  trouble,  yet  in  some  way  provision 
should  be  made  for  the  ingress  of  a  great  abun- 
dance of  air.  Windows,  2'  x  3',  put  as  high  as 
the  story  will  allow,  each  one  hinged  at  the 
middle  of  the  sash  and  controlled  by  a  green- 
liouse  adjuster,  which  can  manage  several  win- 
dows, provide  the  most  ready  means  of  letting  in 
fresh  air.  The  hay  chutes  may  carry  off  more 
or  less  impure  air  and  should  be  boxed  tight, 
with  doors  to  open  for  throwing  in  hay.     There 


must  be  provision  for  the  escape  of  the  air  at 
the  roof. 

Milking  cows  seem  to  be  of  a  nervous  and 
susceptible  temperament,  making  it  necessary  for 
them  to  be  kept  much  warmer  than  other  farm 
animals,  so  the  supplying  of  fresh  air  and  the 
removal  of  that  which  is  impure  is  a  most  im- 
portant matter.  AVhat  is  known  as  the  King 
system  works  very  effectively.  It  is  the  building 
of  the  stable  to  be  as  warm  and  as  nearly  air- 
tight as  possible,  using  two  or  more  layers  of 
wood  with  building  paper  between.  (See  Figs. 
605  and  606.)  A  covering  of  plaster  on  the 
outside  would  be  of  advantage  in  this  connection 
and  save  the  wood  from  weather  as  well.  Unless 
the  stable  is  nearly  airtight  the  ventilators  will 
not  work  well. 

Ingress  of  fresh  air  is  provided  above  the 
cows.    Prof.  King  says  there  should  be  an  open- 


no.     60G.       VENTILATIXG     A     STABLE. 

ing  of  2'  X  2'  for  20  cows.  It  would  perhaps  be 
better  to  provide  more  than  one  opening  and 
of  somewhate  greater  capacity  than  that.  Cow 
stables  in  cold  climates  should  not  be  above  8' 
in  height,  as  the  Avarm  air  rises  out   of  reach 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


329 


of  the  animal,  and  her  body  is  to  warm  the 
stable.  The  ingress  of  air  is  through  a  box  that 
starts  2'  or  3'  below  the  ceiling,  rises  and  enters 
at  the  ceiling  level.  This  rise  is  to  prevent  the 
thing  working  the  wrong  way  and  to  permit  the 
warm  air  to  escape  at  that  point.  The  doors 
and  windows  should  fit  well  and  there  should 
he  no  leakage  of  cold  air  from  beneath  the  doors. 
The  air  escapes  from  the  stable  through  flues 
starting  close  to  the  floor  level.  These  flues  are 
better  if  they  run  straight  up  through  the  roof 
to  the  level  of  the  peak.  They  may,  however, 
be  curved  to  follow  the  under  side  of  the  roof 
and  escape  at  the  peak  through  a  cupola.  These 
boxes  in  a  cold  climate  should  be  of  wood,  else 
they  may  fill  with  frost  in  very  severe  weather 
from  the  condensation  of  the  cows'  breath.  The 
size  of  the  flues  should  be  in  excess  of  the  size 
of  the  intakes ;  that  is,  for  20  cows  there  should 
be  flues  of  a  capacity  of  over  24"  x  24"  inside 
diameter ;  for  40  cows  twice  that  amount.  Warm 
air  is  lighter  than  cold  air;  the  column  of  air 
in  the  flues  is  much  warmer  than  the  column 
outside,  therefore  it  rises,  cool  air  enters  over 
the  cows,  flows  over  them,  diffuses,  sinks  to  the 
ground,  enters  the  flues  at  that  level  and  goes 
out  from  the  building.  Carbon  dioxide,  the 
poisonous  product  of  breathing,  is  heavier  than 
air  and  tends  to  settle  to  the  floor,  even  though 
it  is  warm ;  it  is  thus  drawn  up  and  out.  Also 
the  coldest  air  in  the  stable  is  that  which  is 
drawn  out.  There  should  be,  however,  provision 
made  for  letting  the  air  at  the  ceiling  escape 
directly  into  the  ventilators  when  that  is  de- 
sired. Both  openings  should  be  provided  with 
valves  that  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  will. 

ANOTHER  STABLE  VENTILATOR. 

The  object  of  having  stables  well  ventilated  is 
to  furnish  pure  air  during  the  time  the  animals 
are  confined  to  their  quarters.  The  sketch  in 
Fig.  607  is  of  a  ventilating  shaft  for  stables  and 
box  stalls  which  is  inexpensive  and  at  the  same 
time  admits  pure  air  and  carries  off  all  foul 
ga.ses.  This  shaft  will  furnish  pure  air  and  will 
carry  off  foul  gases  from  large  and  small  stables. 
The  shaft  should  be  about  in  the  middle  of  the 
stable  or  near  the  heads  of  the  horses,  as  shown 
in  the  sketch  of  stalled  stable. 

The  best  material  is  wood,  because  it  does 
not  condense  the  steam  as  it  ascends  nearly  so 
much  as  metal,  and  there  is  less  dropping  of 
water  from  it.  The  upper  end  should  be  guarded 
from  down  draft,  either  by  a  cowl  which  will 
turn  with  the  wind,  or  by  a  covered  ventilator 


of  tin  fixed  on  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  At  the 
bottom  a  sheet  of  iron,  considerably  larger  than 
the  shaft,  should  be  fixed  about  3"  or  4"  below 
the  mouth,  so  as  to  prevent  any  down  draft 


FIG.     607.       AXOTHER     STABLE     VENTILATOR. 

striking  the  horses,  or  to  catch  any  drip  from  the 
condensations  of  the  steam  of  the  stable.  This 
draft  can  also  be  used  in  separate  box  stalls  as 
well  as  in  stalled  stables. 

A  shaft  about  6"  in  diameter  is  amply  large 
for  one  box,  and  this  with  the  ventilating  win- 
dow or  the  separate  ventilator,  will  keep  any 
stable  in  a  healthy  condition,  if  its  drainage  is 
properly  attended  to.  There  is  a  common  notion 
that  no  ascending  shaft  will  remove  the  carbonic 
acid  gas,  which  is  one  of  the  results  of  respira- 
tion. This,  however,  is  a  mistaken  idea,  because 
all  gases  have  a  tendency  to  mix  rapidly  to- 
gether and  hence,  although  the  weight  of  pure 
carbonic  acid  gas  is  so  great  that  it  may  be 
poured  from  one  glass  into  another,  yet  as  it  is 
given  off  gradually  by  the  lungs  it  does  not 
remain  separate,  but  mixes  with  the  bulk  of 
the  air  in  the  stable  and  is  carried  off  with  it. 

This  system  of  ventilation  will  undoubtedly 
prove  efficient  and  all  right  in  a  mild  climate. 
The  part  above  the  roof  should  be  fitted  with 
Woodward's  system  of  self-closing  shutters  that 
close  on  the  windward  side  and  open  on  the  lee- 
ward side;    then  there  will  be  no  down  drafts. 


330 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


SELF-KEGULATING  VENTILATOR. 

This  ventilator  is  always  in  working  order; 
there  is  never  any  chance  for  wind  to  blow  into 
it,  but  always  the  air  currents  are  out,  as  they 
should  be,  and  when  it  is  desired  it  is  readily 
closed  up  tight. 

By  referring  to  Fig  608  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  consists  of  the  ordinary  cupola,  which  may 
be  of  any  form,  on  the  sides  of  which  are  hinged 
light-tight  doors,  the  hinges  at  the  top.     These 


the  water  even  one-eighth  of  a  mile  from  the 
barn  and  say  the  horses  are  watered  there.  Three 
trips  a  day  with  work  horses  means  three-quar- 
ters of  a  mile  of  travel,  and  generally  not  over 
the  smoothest  road.  This  amounts  to  some  270 
miles  each  year  and  a  farmer  may  live  sixty 
years  on  his  farm.  Put  it  low  and  say  that 
he  travels  but  15,000  miles  in  watering  his 
horses  during  his  lifetime.  Is  this  not  an  im- 
portant item  in  farm  economics? 

Small  streams  to  water  live  stock  are  usually 


doors  are  connected  by  a  board  that  holds  one 
or  both  a  little  way  ajar.  Suppose  the  wind 
blows;  one  of  them  will  shut  and  on  the  lee- 
ward side  the  other  will  be  open.  This  makes 
it  impossible  for  cold  draughts  to  come  down. 
Then  supposing  you  wish  to  lessen  the  amount 
of  air  entering;  you  simply  draw  down  on  a 
cord  that  is  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  con- 
necting board  at  a  place  where  there  is  a  hinge, 
and  it  bends  there,  drawing  the  doors  together 
somewhat  or  close  up  as  you  like.  In  the  illustra- 
tion the  dotted  line  S  shows  the  ventilators 
closed ;   0  shows  them  open. 

THE  WATER  SUPPLY  ON  THE  FARM. 

Proximity  of  a  source  of  pure  water  to  the 
barn  or  stable  is  of  more  importance  than  might 
at  first  thought  appear.  To  have  a  spring  or 
running  stream  located  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from 
the  barns  often  means  a  great  deal  of  extra  la- 
bor on  the  part  of  the  work  stock  in  traveling 
that  distance  every  day  for  their  water.     Put 


of  more  detriment  than  value  in  that  they  are 
the  distributers  of  many  diseases.  Swine  breed- 
ers know  to  their  sorrow  the  cost  of  watering  at 
running  streams  where  contagion  is  so  easily 
carried  with  the  current. 

A  spring  high  enough  above  the  farm  so  that 
water  from  it  may  be  carried  in  iron  pipes  to 
the  yards  and  buildings  is  of  incalculable  value 
on  a  stock  farm.  Next  to  this  comes  the  well 
and  wind  pump.  Dug  wells  are  sink-holes  of 
iniquity,  summer  resorts  for  mice,  toads,  worms 
and  insects,  breeding  places  for  disease  germs. 
The  drainage  of  the  yards,  distant  privy  vaults 
and  sink  drains  is  often  to  these  wells.  The 
driven  well,  put  down  where  there  are  tight  veins 
of  clay  to  keep  out  surface  water,  is  generally 
safe.  Nothing  can  get  in  it  from  above.  Seep- 
age of  surface  impurities  is  almost  impossible. 
The  driven  well  can  be  put  any  place  where  it  is 
desired,  within  the  stable,  at  the  kitchen  door, 
in  the  barnyard  or  wherever  it  is  most  convenient. 

Where  the  subsoil  is  of  sand  or  gravel  or  is 
not  watertight  the  driven  well  will   of  course 


MI8CELLANE0  VS. 


331 


afford  no  security  against  water  pollution.  It 
will,  however,  in  any  case  be  free  from  danger 
of  invasion  by  rats,  mice  or  insects.  A  good 
driven  well  at  the  house  will  repay  its  cost 
many  times  over. 

Best  of  all  is  the  well  which  is  sunk  clear  into 
the  hard  rock.  Then  if  the  steel  tubing  is  sunk 
properly  there  can  be  no  fear  of  contamination. 

A  farm  water  supply  system  is  thus  described 
by  one  who  is  using  it:  An  ordinary  windmill 
forces  the  water  into  an  underground  tank,  from 
which  it  is  conducted  by  pipes  where  wanted. 
The  water  being  forced  through  a  check-valve 
from  the  pump  into  the  tank  fills  the  bottom  of 
the  tank  and  thus  compresses  the  air  in  the  top 
of  the  tank.  The  pressure  thus  obtained  is  suf- 
ficient to  force  the  water  into  any  part  of  the 
barn  or  house.  A  water  pressure  gauge  is  at- 
tached to  the  pipes  just  over  the  kitchen  sink 
and  shows  at  a  glance  and  at  all  times  the  exact 
amount  of  pressure,  obviating  any  liability  to 
excess  pressure  and  danger  of  breaking  pipes. 
The  pump  is  usually  shut  off  at  forty  pounds, 
when   a  hose   can  be   attached   and   the   water 


There  is  a  simple  system  operating  on  the 
same  plan  applicable  to  houses.  It  consists  of 
two  or  three  of  the  cylindrical  galvanized  boil- 
ers, of  about  40  gallons  capacity,  one  of  which 
is  heated  from  the  range.  A  force  pump  in  the 
kitchen  forces  water  into  the  bottom  of  the 
other  two  tanks  and  the  air  is  compressed  in  the 
upper  ends.  This  keeps  the  hot  water  reservoir 
always  filled  and  gives  pressure  to  force  either 
cold  or  hot  water  to  any  part  of  the  house.  A 
small  steam  gauge  registers  the  amount  of  pres- 
sure, which  is  usually  about  20  pounds. 

This  system  is  so  simple  and  cheap  that  any 
farmer  can  afford  it  and  the  satisfaction  it  gives 
is  beyond  calculation.  Any  plumber  can  put  it 
in  and  it  should  not  cost,  piping  and  all,  more 
than  $40. 

EAETH  WATER  TANK. 

The  plan  illustrated  in  Fig.  609  shows  a  sec- 
tion of  a  dirt  tank.  The  dimensions  are  given, 
but  the  size  can  be  suited  to  requirements.  A 
100,000-gallon  dirt  tank  costs  very  little  more 
than  a  10,000-gallon  cypress  cistern.    Hundreds 


OIRT WALLS  ABOUT  9 FEET  HEJGH      ABOUT  30  FEET    WIDE    AT  BOTTOM 


I  TAKEN      OUT 

^WITH      PLOW/fOUNDMION   LOOSENED     WITH 
gOSCRAPCR/     A  PLOW  TO   BUILD  SOILON 


X  PIPE  LAID  IN  BEFORE 
BUILDING 


FIG.     609.       EARTH    WATER    TANK    CONSTRUCTION. 


thrown  over  the  house  or  barn.  The  tank  may 
be  located  in  the  cellar.  It  may  be  an  iron  tank 
31/^'  in  diameter,  and  12'  long,  or  located 
underground  near  the  well.  Its  capacity  is  30 
barrels,  but  it  is  never  full,  as  the  air  occupies 
some  of  the  space  in  the  tank.  A  50-barrel 
tank  for  a  stock  or  dairy  farm  would  be  ad- 
visable. 

The  system  is  very  simple,  easily  constructed 
and  anybody  can  manage  it  successfully.  It  puts 
the  enterprising  farmer  on  a  par  with  the 
dwellers  of  cities  as  regards  a  water  supply,  and 
it  is  not  expensive.  Including  a  well  100'  deep, 
a  windmill  and  force  pump,  tank,  1000'  of  sup- 
ply pipe,  400'  of  sewer  pipe,  hydrants,  sinks  and 
bathroom  fixtures  this  water  system  costs  $600. 
It  can  generally  be  installed  at  much  less  cost 
than  the  estimate  given.  Very  often  a  second- 
hand boiler  good  enough  to  hold  water  can  be 
obtained  at  low  cost.  Any  iron  tank  strong 
enough  to  sustain  a  pressure  of  about  40  pounds 
will  serve.  There  is  no  danger  of  the  water 
freezing,  no  lukewarm  water  in  summer  and 
there  is  a  lively  pressure  at  any  point  where  it  is 
led  in  pipes. 


of  these  dirt  tanks  have  been  made,  and  are 
being  made  in  western  and  southern  Texas. 

Fig.  610  shows  the  plan  for  water  supply  at 
a  farm  to  accommodate  20  to  30  head  of  cattle 
and  from  4  to  6  horses.  During  the  summer 
and  fall  only  the  work  horses  will  be  to  water 
and  in  the  winter  the  cattle  will  have  access  to  a 
spring.  At  J  a  waste  pipe  can  be  installed  if 
necessary;  this  is  the  lowest  point  in  pipe  from 
cistern  to  tank.  By  letting  water  out  here  the 
danger  of  the  pipe  freezing  up  in  very  cold 
weather  would  be  avoided.  The  plan  is  de- 
scribed thus :  A,  bank  barn,  50'  x  56'  x  26'.  B, 
horse  stable  with  plank  floor  M;  all  the  rest 
is  dirt  floor.  F  C,  feed  room  for  stable.  D  D, 
tanks  or  tubs  for  water  in  barn.  E.  level.  F, 
contour  of  surface.  G,  level  at  which  water  must 
be  delivered  in  barn  which  is  also  the  level  of 
bottom  of  cistern.  H,  cistern.  I  I,  posts  sup- 
porting conductor.  L,  pipe  from  cistern  to  tank. 
K,  conductor  from  eave  of  barn  to  cistern.  J, 
lowest  point  in  L.  N,  vertical  distance  from 
surface  where  cistern  must  be  located  to  G ;  this 
distance  is  714'. 

An  architect  comments  thus: 


332 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


' '  I  should  build  a  large  cistern,  or  if  preferred 
a  pair  of  cisterns  side  by  side,  building  them 
square  because  that  form  is  easiest  walled,  and 
walling  with  a  concrete  wall  about  6"  thick. 
IMake  the  cisterns  4'  wide  and  12'  long,  inside 
diameter,  and  as  deep  as  the  water  will  drain 
from,  and  cover  over  with  flat  slabs  of  rein- 
forced concrete.  These  flat  covers  are  cheaper 
and  easier  built  than  arched  ones  and  strong 
enough  if  well  reinforced  with  steel.  To  make 
the  covers  first  support  on  temporary  posts  a 
false  floor  of  planking.  Lay  on  this  floor  an 
inch  of  rich  and  fine  concrete.  Now  lay  down 
a  network  of  small  iron  rods,  about  y/'  i^  diam- 
eter, laying  them  12"  apart  and  in  each  direction. 
Next  lay  down  5"  more  of  concrete  on  top 
of  the  reinforcing,  finishing  it  with  an  inch  of 


a  covering  of  one  solid  slab  of  concrete  for  the 
whole  of  it  may  be  made  safe  to  drive  over  with 
teams.  It  should  however  have  in  it  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  steel,  and  at  intervals  of  8' 
there  should  be  concrete  beams,  w^ith  inch  steel 
or  iron  rods  imbedded  in  the  under  part  of  them, 
thrown  across  beneath  the  cover,  these  beams 
being  perhaps  16"  deep  and  12"  wide.  These 
may  be  built  when  the  walls  are  built ;  then  after 
they  are  well  set  and  hardened  a  temporary 
floor  laid  with  its  top  just  even  with  the  top  of 
the  beams  and  an  inch  of  concrete  laid  down, 
after  which  there  should  be  laid  lengthwise  of 
the  cistern  and  across  the  beams  5  steel  rods, 
with  the  ends  turned  over  an  inch,  the  rods  %" 
in  diameter.  Across  them  now  lay  transversely 
No.  2  wires,  one  about  8",  and  on  the  whole  net- 


FIG.     610.       PLAN    FOR    A    WATER    SUPPLY    SYSTEM    ON    THE    FARM. 


richer  concrete  such  as  is  used  to  face  sidewalks. 
Leave  manholes  to  clean  out  with  and  for  taking 
out  the  Avooden  forms.  Do  not  take  out  the 
forms  for  30  days.  Wash  the  interior  of  the 
cistern  twice  with  a  wash  of  pure  cement  and 
water,  as  thick  as  cream." 

BARN  CISTERN  TO  HOLD  400  BARRELS. 

An  Ohio  farmer  desired  to  build  of  concrete 
above  his  barn  in  a  bank  a  cistern  10'  v/ide,  35' 
long  and  6'  deep.  He  was  thus  counseled  by  an 
architect : 

The  outer  walls  against  the  earth  need  not  be 
more  than  6"  thick.  The  wall  between  the  cis- 
tern and  stable  should  be  12",  It  should  also 
be  built  up  solidly  under  the  barn  and  against 
the  cross  timbers  so  that  the  water  pressure  will 
have  no  tendency  to  overthrow  it.  Then  if  it 
is  well  washed  with  pure  cement  on  the  inner 
side  it  will  be  as  dry  as  any  wall  can  be.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  cover  this  cistern  with  planks; 


work  of  steel  thus  laid  down  put  on  6"  of  first- 
class  concrete.  In  each  of  the  beams  put  four 
of  the  inch  rods.  Have  all  the  metal  imbedded 
and  completely  covered  with  concrete.  Have  the 
ends  of  each  wire  and  rod  turned  over  so  that  it 
cannot  slip.  Then  there  will  be  at  little  ex- 
pense a  solid  concrete  cover  for  this  cistern  that 
should  endure  for  many  centuries,  whereas  oak 
boards  are  short-lived  and  dangerous  when  cov- 
ering a  cistern  in  a  barnyard. 

INSULATING  WATER  PIPES. 

This  is  a  hard  proposition.  Words  fail  to 
convey  the  aggravation  that  is  caused  by  a 
frozen  water  system.  Underground  pipes  even 
fail  at  times  to  obviate  the  difficulty,  as  the  frost 
sometimes  reaches  as  far  down  as  five  feet  and 
makes  plenty  of  trouble.  With  the  elevated 
tanks  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
freezing.     Railroad  tanks  are  generally  kept  in 


MI8CELLANE0  U8. 


333 


more  or  less  state  of  agitation  with  drawing  out 
and  tilling,  but  their  pipes  are  very  carefully 
insulated  against  frost. 

Boxing,  sawdust  filling,  paper  Avrapping  and 
specially  prepared  insulating  material  are  de- 
pended on  to  fight  off  frost.  Double  boxing  is 
necessary  in  order  to  be  efficient,  and  building 
paper  should  be  used  on  the  inner  box,  but  even 
this  has  proved  unreliable  in  our  experience. 
We  have  finished  Avitli  such  makeshifts  and  gone 
to  the  use  of  special  insulation  made  of  hair-felt, 
which  has  thus  far  proved  satisfactory.  It  is  a 
regular  article  of  trade  and  can  be  ordered 
through  stores  or  supply  houses.  For  small 
pipes,  such  as  two-inch,  this  insulation  can  be 
obtained  molded,  just  like  the  asbestos  covering 
of  steam  pipes,  but  for  larger  pipes  it  may  be 
applied  in  sheets,  wrapping  it  around  several 
times.  A  tight  boxing  should  be  built  around 
this  insulation.  It  requires  no  little  care  to  fight 
off  frost  in  the  cold  climates  where  zero  weather 
is  common.  In  small  tanks  it  may  be  necessary 
to  put  a  float  valve  in  the  bottom  with  wire  at- 
tached, so  that  the  inlet  may  be  closed  and  the 
pipe  drained  on  very  cold  nights. 

AS  TO  COLD  STORAGE. 

We  hear  so  much  about  cold  storage  that  IL  is 
an  old  story  to  most  of  us,  but  how  many  have 
stopped  to  consider  what  the  words  really  mean  ? 
Commercial  cold  storage  means  the  ''ice  box" 
or  refrigerator  of  every  day  use  on  a  large  scale. 
It  is  merely  the  utilization  of  the  preserving 
properties  of  ice  put  into  play  on  a  larger  scale. 
The  milk  could  not  be  kept  sweet  for  the  baby 
were  it  not  for  the  beneficent  cooling  properties 
of  ice.  And  no  matter  how  these  cooling  quali- 
ties are  obtained,  whether  by  steam  and  anhy- 
drous ammonia,  or  by  the  frozen  water  itself, 
it  is  all  the  same.  The  whole  modern  packing 
system — that  system  which  day  by  day  prevents 
catach'sms  in  the  market  for  live  stock — rests 
absolutely  on  the  chill  rooms. 

Here  is  a  suggestion  for  all  farmers  who  have 
not  so  far  embraced  it :  keep  ice  on  hand  all  the 
year  around.  In  winter  it  comes  of  its  own 
accord;  in  summer  it  can  be  had  at  small  ex- 
pense, considering  the  great  benefits  to  be  de- 
rived from  having  it  constantly  on  hand.  Like 
interest  on  money  ice  never  ceases  working,  day 
or  night.  In  the  refrigerator  it  keeps  sweet  and 
wholesome  all  manner  of  human  food.  In  sick- 
ness it  is  almost  priceless. 

It  is  not  hard  to  keep  ice,  nor  to  transport  it, 
except  for  its  weight.  We  know,  for  instance, 
of  a  farm  where  a  ton  of  ice  is  hauled  seven 
miles  every  ^Monday  morning  and  placed  in  the 


cooler.  That  is  for  the  house  of  the  proprietor. 
As  much  as  two  strong  horses  can  draw  is  hauled 
on  a  big  lumber  wagon  for  the  use  of  the  men 
who  work.  The  ice  costs  but  little;  the  saving 
in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  fresh  meats,  to 
say  nothing  about  milk,  butter  and  the  like,  is 
greater  than  the  amount  that  is  paid  out  for 
the  frozen  water  hauled  seven  miles  once  a  week. 

The  place  to  keep  this  ice  in  such  quantities 
is  not  necessarily  expensive  to  build.  A  very 
good  cold  storage  plant  can  be  erected  on  any 
farm  for  a  comparatively  small  sum.  Once  put 
up  the  cold  storage  will  soon  pay  for  itself.  A 
trial  to  the  thrifty  farmer  in  hot  weather  is  the 
lack  of  fresh  meat  and  inability  to  kill  young 
animals  off  the  farm.  With  a  cold  storage  plant 
commensurate  to  his  needs  the  farmer  may  have 
continually  on  his  table  at  first  cost  lamb,  mut- 
ton, fresh  pork;  and  when  it  comes  to  the 
poultry,  they  may  be  killed  in  quantity  and 
stowed  away  for  future  consumption  as  needed, 
instead  of  having  to  chase  them  every  time  they 
are  required. 

There  is  profit  and  great  comfort  in  having 
cold  storage  on  a  farm.  Surely  when  it  is  the 
backbone  of  one  of  the  greatest  industries  on 
earth  it  is  worth  the  while  of  the  farmer  who 
sells  to  that  industry  to  take  a  leaf  out  of  its 
book. 

PACKING  FOR  COLD  STORAGE  CLOSET. 

To  line  a  small  cold  storage  closet  opening  into 
the  pantry,  witli  space  above  it  for  ice  to  be  put 
in  from  the  outside,  use  soldered  galvanized  iron, 
water-tight,  especially  where  the  ice  is  put,  else 
it  will  cause  decay  in  the  adjoining  parts.  For 
packing  mineral  wool  is  probably  as  good  as  any- 
thing ;  it  can  be  bought  cheaply  of  any  dealer  in 
deadening  felts  and  builders '  supplies.  Dry  saw- 
dust is  just  as  good  if  it  is  kept  dry.  Let  the  ice 
compartment  have  a  drain  with  air-trap  leading 
safely  away  from  the  woodwork.  Be  sure  that 
the  doors  fit  closely  so  as  not  to  let  air  currents 
pass  through  the  refrigerator,  else  there  will  be 
great  waste  of  ice.    Double  doors  are  best. 

FARM  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM. 

The  drainage  system  shown  in  Fig.  611  is 
clieap  and  effective  and  can  be  put  in  by  the 
farmer  himself  with  but  little  help.  The  plan 
explains  itself  fully,  the  principle  being  that  the 
bacteria  which  are  generated  by  putrefaction 
multiply  very  quickly  in  the  first  septic  tank, 
devouring  the  solid  matter  until  almost  elimi- 
nated. What  passes  into  the  second  septic  tank 
undergoes  the  same  process,  but  to  a  less  amount, 


334 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


owing  to  its  being  purer.  The  liquid  now  flows 
into  the  primary  filter,  being  a  trench  15'  long 
and  3'  to  4'  deep.  At  its  bottom  is  a  layer  of 
broken  stone,  surmounted  by  a  layer  of  gravel, 
which  is  underdrained  by  an  Akron  pipe,  lead- 
ing the  filtered  water  into  a  siphon  set  a  foot 
below  the  bed  and  made  of  the  same  piping. 
The  secondary  filter,  reached  through  the 
siphon,  consists  of  an  air  chamber  of  cobble- 
stones, above  which  rests  three  feet  of  double- 
screened  gravel  and  sand.  An  8'  pipe  runs  from 
the  surface  of  the  ground  into  this  air  chamber 
and  by  means  of  a  force  pump  the  purified  water 
is  raised. 

The  septic  tanks    must    be    water-tight    and 
sealed  practically  air-tight  on  top  by  an  iron 


of  ground  rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  and  stirred 
in  while  hot ;  half  a  pound  Spanish  whiting  and 
one  pound  of  glue,  previously  dissolved  by  soak- 
ing in  cold  water,  and  then  hanging  over  the  fire 
in  a  small  pot  hung  in  a  larger  one  filled  with 
water;  add  five  gallons  of  hot  water  to  the  mix- 
ture, stir  well  and  let  it  stand  a  few  days  covered 
from  dirt.  It  should  be  applied  hot,  for  which 
purpose  it  can  be  kept  in  a  portable  furnace. 
Whitewash  makes  things  look  neat  and  clean  and 
is  especially  adapted  to  the  inside  of  stables  and 
sheds.  For  outside  work  a  little  tint  added  to  it 
makes  it  better.  Pretty  tints  of  yellow  are  made 
by  the  use  of  yellow  ochre.  It  is  necessary  to 
use  considerable  of  the  ochre.  It  is  much  lighter 
after  it  is  dry  than  it  appears  when  first  put  on. 


»-«  A      _Ljh 


/«<?/«  c./- 


FIG.     611.       FARM    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM. 


manhole.  The  bacteria  thrive  without  oxygen, 
and  sewer  gas  will  not  generate  unless  a  certain 
amount  of  air  space  is  provided.  One  cubic 
yard  of  filtering  space  is  sufficient  for  one  per- 
son. In  this  plan  50'  of  filter  space  has  been 
provided  with  15  cubic  yards  of  filtering  ma- 
terial in  this  instance,  because  15  is  the  average 
number  of  persons  supposed  to  occupy  the  farm 
and  using  it.  This  system  is  becoming  popular 
both  for  private  and  public  places. 

FORMULA  FOR  WHITEWASH. 

Take  a  half  bushel  of  unslacked  lime,  slake  it 
with  boiling  water,  cover  during  the  process  to 
keep  in  steam ;  strain  the  liquid  through  a  fine 
sieve  or  strainer,  and  add  to  it  a  peck  of  salt, 
previously  dissolved  in  warm  water,  three  pounds 


When  outside  plastering  is  done  this  limewash 
with  ochre  in  it  is  admirable.  The  addition  of 
ochre  to  the  wash  seems  to  add  to  its  permanence 
and  to  make  it  less  liable  to  rub  off.  The  es- 
sential thing  in  making  limewash  seems  to  be  to 
have  good  fresh  lime,  slake  it  in  boiling  water, 
add  some  corn  starch  or  flour  paste  or  paste  made 
from  boiled  rice,  which  is  supposed  to  make  it 
stick,  and  some  glue. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  BOX-STALLS. 

Do  not  make  them  too  small ;  8'  x  10'  will 
serve,  and  as  much  larger  as  you  can  afford. 
Make  the  walls  of  strong  material,  well  fastened. 
Have  no  crevices  large  enough  for  a  horse  to 
thrust  a  foot  througli.  ]\Iake  the  walls  of  2" 
stuff  if  you  want  it  right,  say  of  2"  x  6"  which 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


335 


may  be  spaced  3"  between.  Put  this  stuff  on 
verticall}^  let  the  sides  come  up  at  least  7'  high 
between  the  boxes,  and  if  you  want  it  right  bolt 
it  together  with  small  bolts  which  cost  little  and 
are  not  slow  to  put  in.  Cut  off  the  ends  of  the 
bolts  smooth  with  the  nuts,  then  there  will  be 
no  hair  rubbed  off.    Protect  well  the  windows. 

Some  of  the  best  stables  now  feed  hay  upon 
the  floor  of  the  box-stalls.    Make  the  grain  boxes 


TEED 
ALLEY 


BOX  \U 
PEED    ALLEY 


BOX  STALL 


H=HINGE 
FIG.    612.       CONSTRUCTION    OF   BOX-STALLS. 

hinge  to  tilt  outward  into  their  feed  passage  en- 
tirely out  of  the  stalls;  then  they  will  be  clean 
when  needed  and  the  feed  may  be  put  in  at  any 
time  and  pushed  through  when  needed,  or  at 
the  regular  feeding  time.  Have  a  sliding  latch 
to  hold  the  feed  box  either  in  or  out.  Fig.  612 
will  show  this  swinging  feed  box,  which  costs  but 
a  trifle  to  make,  though  it  should  be  strongly  put 
together.  Whatever  may  be  necessary  in  other 
parts  of  the  barn  make  the  floors  of  box-stalls 
of  natural  earth.  It  is  a  luxury  that  the  horse 
Avill  appreciate.  If  necessary  go  somewhere  and 
get  hard  clay  for  this  purpose. 

Box  doors  should  slide  on  the  inside  of  the 
stalls.  They  should  come  down  within  8"  or  12" 
of  the  floor,  and  beneath  them  there  must  be  a 
plank  2"  thick  coming  within  2"  of  the  bottom 
of  the  door  so  that  in  no  case  can  the  horse 
thrust  out  a  foot  and  get  it  under  the  door  when 
lying  down.  This  plank  will  serve  to  retain 
straw  and  litter  in  the  stall  and  is  not  much 
to  step  over. 

SCOTT'S  COW  STALL. 

Joseph  E.  Wing  describes  this  stall  thus: 
There  are  three  essentials  to  a  perfect  stall: 
that  it  be  comfortable  for  the  cow,  that  it  keep 
her  clean,  and  that  it  be  convenient  for  the  man 
who  cares  for  the  cow.  The  stall  I  describe 
(see  Fig.  614)  is  nearly  perfect  in  all  these  par- 
ticulars.   I  am  indebted  to  Geo.  E.  Scott,  of  Ohio, 


for  my  first  knowledge  of  this  stall,  but  I  have 
since  changed  it  slightly  from  his  model. 

The  cement  floor  is  admirable.  Let  it  extend 
forward  far  enough  to  form  the  bottom  of  the 
feed  box  at  A  {Fig.  614).     Imbedded  in  it  set 


FIG.  613.   SCOTT  S  COW  STALL. 


FIG.  614.   SCOTT'S  COW  STALL. 

the  foot  of  the  post  C,  and  place  the  2"  x  4"  on 
which  rests  the  ends  of  the  front  posts  at  A.  Let 
the  manure  trench  be  16"  wide  and  8"  or  10" 
deep.  This  depth  permits  the  use  of  plenty  of 
absorbents  and  also  prevents  the  cows  from  step- 
ping into  the  ditch  either  when  standing  in  their 
stalls  or  when  passing  out  and  in.  The  dis- 
tance back  of  the  ditch  may  be  3'  or  more,  ac- 
cording to  space  at  hand.  From  B  to  trench 
let  there  be  a  slope  of  not  more  than  4".  Froju 
the  edge  of  the  trench  to  the  front  of  the  sta^ 
at  A  the  distance  should  be  from  6'  to  6'  8", 
according  to  the  size  of  the  cows  to  be  stabled. 
The  partitions  between  the  cows  are  5'  high  and 
3'  6"  long,  and  in  the  drawing  are  shown  cut 
away  to  give  sight  of  the  %"  iron  rod  R,  on 
which  slides  the  chain  that  confines  the  cow. 
This  rod  is  best  placed  midway  between  the  par- 
titions, as  then  the  cow  can  lick  herself  on  either 
side. 

The  ends  of  the  1"  x  3"  laths  that  form  the 
front  of  the  manger  are  shown.  Thev  should  be 
spaced  about  4"  apart.     The  cow  draws  her  hay 


336 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


through  these  spaces.  The  board  B  is  about  1' 
high  and  hollowed  slightly  in  the  center  where 
the  cow's  neck  comes  when  she  lies  down.  The 
one-quarter  round  keeps  it  solid  and  makes  it 
easier  for  her  to  clean  the  meal  out  of  her  box. 
The  partitions  go  clear  across  the  manger  and 
feed  boxes.  The  sloping  side  of  the  manger  D 
is  tight,  so  that  meal  may  be  poured  thereon  and 
allowed  to  run  down  into  feed  box  below.  Hay  is 
put  in  at  E.  The  space  E  is  not  partitioned  off 
but  is  continuous  along  the  entire  front  row  of  the 
cows.  A  box  for  bran  may  easily  be  made  be- 
low the  sloping  board  D. 

The  advantage  of  this  stall  is  that  as  the  cow 
cannot  push  ahead,  being  restrained  by  the  slats 
in  front  of  her,  she  is  compelled  to  drop  her 
manure  in  the  gutter.  She  will  not  step  in  this, 
as  it  would  be  uncomfortable  for  her  to  do  so 
and  the  real  and  practical  working  of  the  thing 
is  perfection.  We  have  fitted  a  small  stable  with 
these  stalls  and  the  cows  have  never  soiled  them- 
selves in  it  since  it  was  made. 

Place  the  partitions  from  3'  6"  apart  to  4', 
according  to  the  size  of  the  cows  to  be  stabled. 
The  partitions  being  high  and  tight  prevent 
cows  annoying  each  other,  and  being  short  give 
room  to  the  milker  and  groom  and  also  cause  the 
cows  to  present  a  handsome  appearance  when 
viewed  from  side  or  rear.  The  rod  R  is  bolted 
at  each  end,  but  if  a  safe  fire-escape  is  wanted  it 
should  be  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  614.  Here 
the  rod  slips  through  the  eyes  of  the  eye  bolts 
A  and  B  and  is  held  suspended  by  the  small 
chain  C.  This  is  riveted  to  the  l^-/  S^^  pipe 
D,  which  has  a  short  piece  turned  down  to  make 
a  crank  at  one  end,  as  E.  This  pipe  extends 
along  the  entire  row  of  cattle  and  turns  easily  in 
its  supports.  When  there  is  danger  or  the  cows 
are  to  be  loosened  a  few  turns  of  the  crank  winds 
all  the  chains  and  raises  the  rods  out  of  their 
places,  when  the  cow  chains  slip  off  and  the  cows 
are  free.  It  may  pay  to  fit  a  stable  with  this 
simple  device  with  a  view  of  freeing  cows  at  any 
time  when  they  are  to  be  watered  or  turned  out. 
Of  course  the  chains  would  be  unwound  before 
the  cows  are  put  back  in  their  stalls.  This 
device  is,  so  far  as  I  know,  original  with  me. 

THE  A^AN  NORMAN  COW  STALL. 

The  ideal  cow  stall  should  have  among  other 
requisites  the  following :  A  fastener  that  will 
hold  the  animal  securely,  be  easy  to  fasten  when 
securing  the  animal  and  to  unfasten  when  turn- 
ing it  out.  The  fastener  should  be  so  arranged 
that  there  is  no  danger  of  the  animal  getting  the 
feet  caught  in  it,  and  should  give  the  maximum 


of  liberty  commensurate  with  cleanliness.  The 
stall  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  keep  the  ani- 
mal clean  and  absolutely  to  prevent  one  animal 
from  injuring  another  by  stepping  on  the  udder 
or  by  hooking  and  from  frightening  another  by 
being  able  almost  to  reach  it.  The  manger 
should  hold  the  necessary  feed  and  roughage, 
keeping  it  within  reach  of  the  animal,  preventing 
it  being  gotten  under  foot  and  should  be  easily 
cleaned  of  all  refuse  matter.  Often  the  owner  of 
a  herd  of  cattle  desires  a  stall  that  will  expose  to 
the  visitor's  view  as  much  of  each  animal  as 
possible  without  lessening  the  security  to  his 
animals.  A  stall  should  be  inexpensive  and 
strong.  These  conditions  are  met  fully  in  the 
cow  stall  designed  by  Prof.  H.  E.  Van  Norman 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  arrangement  for  two 
rows  of  stalls  facing  each  other  with  the  feeding 
alley  raised  to  the  top  of  the  manger,  allowing 
feed  and  hay  to  be  swept  into  the  manger  and 
refuse  to  be  swept  out  of  the  manger  into  the 
alley  for  removal.  The  stall  may  be  constructed 
of  2"  lumber,  dressed  on  two  sides,  or  if  it  be 
wliitewashed  ly/  stuff,  rough,  will  hold  the 
whitewash  better  than  if  smooth.  These  are 
standard  sizes  of  lumber,  but  li/o"  dressed  and 
11/4"  rough  are  strong  enough.  For  dairy  cows 
of  average  size,  stalls  3'  6"  from  center  to  center 
and  5'  from  gutter  to  manger  will  be  about  right. 
The  animal  should  have  just  room  to  stand  com- 
fortably with  hind  feet  an  inch  from  the  gutter 
and  front  feet  just  back  of  A  in  Fig.  3.  A 
desirable  arrangement  is  to  place  the  timber  A 
5'  from  the  gutter  at  one  end  of  the  barn  and 
enough  closer  at  the  other  end  to  fit  the  smallest 
animal,  thus  giving  the  stalls  varied  lengths. 

To  build  the  stall  place  the  2"  x  6"  A  {Fig. 
3)  in  position  5'  or  less  from  the  gutter,  then 
the  raised  feeding  floor  should  be  built  M'ith  the 
joist  8  2%'  in  the  clear  from  A;  then  cut  the 
plank  B  and  fasten  in  place,  and  successively 
planks  C,  D,  and  E,  holding  them  temporarily 
with  a  cleat  until  F  and  G  are  secured.  To  cut 
F  and  G,  lay  two  pieces  of  plank  on  the  floor, 
and  on  the  one  G  {Fig.  6)  lay  off  the  distance 
1  to  2  along  the  edge  equal  to  the  distance  from 
the  top  of  partition  2  {Fig.  4)  to  middle  of 
manger  on  top  of  J.  at  1  {Fig.  4)  ;  then  mark 
off  2-3  and  3-1,  making  the  corner  at  3  exactly 
square.  It  will  make  little  difference  if  plank 
G  and  P  {Fig.  4)  do  not  touch  at  1.  When 
properly  fitted  toe-nail  (r  to  J.  at  1,  and  nail 
B,  C,  D  and  E  to  F  and  G ;  then  toe-nail  H, 
and  I  in  place.  The  partition  between  the  stalls 
is  now  held  securely  in  place  and  the  operation 
may  be  repeated  for  as  many  stalls  as  wanted. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


337 


It  is  well  to  leave  the  planks  B,  C,  D  and  E  a 
little  long,  or  even  square  and  when  in  position 
draw  lines  from  4  to  5  and  4  to  6  {Fig.  3),  and 
saw  off  along  these  lines.  The  ends  of  the  planks 
B,  C,  D,  and  E  should  be  covered  with  a  parti- 
tion cap  0  {Fig.  3),  which  holds  them  in  place 
and  gives  a  finished    appearance   to   the   stalls. 


hole  and  key.  These  staples  K  should  be  placed 
9"  from  the  partition  and  lower  end  near  the 
floor.  In  the  middle  of  J  place  a  clevis  of  1"  x 
%"  strap  iron,  in  which  to  fasten  a  common 
chain  tie.  Bore  a  hole  for  clevis  belt  just  above 
the  middle  of  the  bar.  This  bar  should  hang  far 
enough  from  the  neck  to  allow  the  cow  to  stand 


retomrwofigr  top  orukBEK 


MKUietMEIfT  OfTWmwSOFJTHUSfiKWeeACHOTMilf 


Fig.  6. 


K; 


Pig   T 


,X  lx(*4(\it  JtrircLVn. 


Fig   5 


FIG.     615.       VAX     NORMAN     COW     STALL    SHOWING    DETAILS     OF 
CONSTRUCTION. 

Ill  the  absence  of  the  capping  0,  strips  as  shown 
at  P  (  Fig.  3)  may  be  used.  The  bar  J  {Fig. 
4)  should  be  1"  shorter  than  the  distance  be- 
tween partitions  and  made  of  1"  x  3"  light 
strong  wood,  round  corners  and  slides  behind 
iron  staples.  K  {Figs.  4  and  7),  are  made  of 
11/4"  round  iron,  with  nuts  on  the  end  or  with  a 


Fig     4 

comfortably  with  the  head  in  a  natural  position. 
AVhere  conditions  make  the  feeding  alley  im- 
practicable the  front  of  the  manger  may  be  ar- 
ranged on  the  plan  of  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig. 
3.  If  desired  a  2"  x  2"  piece  may  be  run  along 
on  top  of  the  stalls  at  2  {Fig.  4),  though  it  is 
not  recommended.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
instead  of  the  gutter  a  drop  be  arranged,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  5.  T  and  V  are  made  of  a 
2"  X  6",  split  diagonall}^ 

Commenting  on  the  Van  Norman  stall  Joseph 
E.  Wing  says:  "It  is  the  simplest,  cheapest 
and  in  some  ways  the  most  hygienic  stall  of 
them  all.  It  gives  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the 
cattle.  It  does  not  waste  the  feed.  The  objec- 
tion to  it  is  that  cows  that  are  Avild  are  not  so 
readily  secured  as  with  some  other  stalls  and 
there  is  some  noise  when  cattle  are  feeding,  ow- 


338 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ing  to  their  being  fastened  to  a  sliding  bar  in 
front.  It  keeps  them  clean  and  they  are  com- 
fortable." 

STALLS  AND  STALL  FLOORS. 

Concrete  is  used  in  many  good  horse  stables, 
the  only  substitute  being  hard  clay.  The  hard 
clay  is  best  of  any  material  for  the  horse,  but  it 
is  not  so  easily  kept  clean  as  the  concrete  floor. 
It  is  usual  to  lay  over  the  concrete  a  grating  of 
wood,  which  may  be  2"  x  2"  stuff,  put  together 
by  long  bolts  running  clear  through  and  spacing 
the  bars  2"  apart.  This  permits  of  draining 
out  of  liquids  and  keeps  the  horse  off  the  con- 
crete. 

Back  of  the  stall  there  is  usually  put  in  a 
shallow  gutter  which  in  some  cases  has  over  it 


ii 

1 

1 

J 

1 

=lf1 

-j^ 

f 

i 

. 

1 

1 

1 

fl 

t 

1 

.1 
In 
in 

) 

V 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

9 

'0 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

<r   ^ 

CONCRETE    ^"                                                     II 

k 

7 

. 

FIG.     616.       STALL     AND     STALL    FLOORS. 

an  iron  grating.    These  gratings  are  for  sale  by 
makers  of  ironware  for  horse  stables. 

For  farm  stables  many  do  not  think  this 
elaborate  system  the  best  one.  The  urine-soaked 
bars  and  floor  and  gutter  send  forth  steady 
streams  of  ammonia  and  in  some  of  the  very 
finest  and  most  costly  stables  visited  in  the  East 
this  offense  was  very  glaring.  Let  the  horses 
stand  right  on  the  concrete  and  use  liberal  al- 
lowance of  straw  bedding.  It  is  abundant  on 
the  farm,  and,  if  not,  shredded  corn  fodder  is  at 
hand,  and  this  will  absorb  the  urine  and  put  it 
back  to  the  fields.  Then  if  there  is  kept  at  hand 
a  lot  of  "floats"  (finely  ground  phosphate  rock) 
which  absorbs  and  sweetens,  or  land  plaster,  near- 
ly as  good  for  sweetening,  there  will  come  from 
the  stable  a  steady  stream  of  fertility  to  add  to 
the  fields.  Drains  leading  to  cisterns  are  an 
annovance  from  start  to  finish  and  a  constant 


waste  of  nitrogen  which  readily  escapes  at  the 
urine  ferments. 

As  to  the  cost,  these  floors  are  laid  4"  thick, 
on  a  foundation  of  hard-packed  gravel  or  broken 
stone.  A  yard  of  concrete  will  cover  a  space 
8'  X  10'  and  that  yard  will  cost  to  make  and  lay 
about  $5,  using  best  cement  and  charging  $1 
for  the  yard  of  gravel  or  crushed  stone.  That 
is  cheaper  than  a  wooden  floor  2"  thick  on  joists 
and  will  outlast  several  wooden  floors.  Fig.  616 
shows  a  cross-section  of  good  stall,  the  dimen- 
sions are  right  and  the  materials  need  not  be 
used  just  as  shown;  the  coping  of  iron  may  be 
of  wood  for  economy's  sake.  The  post  should 
be  imbedded  in  concrete  and  go  at  least  18" 
deep. 

TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER. 

A  case  is  assumed  in  which  a  boiler  is  94'  dis- 
tant from  an  engine,  the  engine  being  placed 
close  to  a  barn.  The  steam  is  conducted  to  the 
engine  through  a  ll^-inch  pipe,  this  pipe  being 
encased  in  a  larger  pipe.  If  the  engine  is  moved 
back  to  the  boiler  is  there  any  better  means  of 
transmitting  the  power  to  the  barn  (for  sawing, 
grinding  and  cutting  silage)  than  by  the  use  of 
an  endless  wire  rope  ? 

Assuming  that  his  conditions  are  similar  to 
Fig.  617,  where  the  boiler  is  located  at  a  dis- 
tance of  94'  from  the  engine,  the  steam  being 
fed  to  the  engine  through  a  li/^-inch  pipe  en- 
cased in  a  larger  pipe  which  is  represented  by 
"4"  in  the  sketch, the  results  obtained  under  most 
favorable  conditions  would  be  far  from  good 
owing  to  the  condensation.  This  would  depend 
largely  on  the  size  of  the  pipe  used  for  the 
amount  of  steam  to  be  transmitted,  the  number 
of  bends  in  the  pipe,  the  drainage  of  the  pipe, 
whether  it  was  placed  above  or  below  ground,  the 
kind  of  covering  used  over  pipe,  and  the  weatlier 
to  which  it  was  submitted. 

It  no  doubt  would  be  possible  to  transmit  this 
power  by  rope  drive.  The  advisability  of  using 
this  method  would  largely  depend  on  the  number 
of  different  directions  the  rope  would  have  to 
be  led  in  order  to  reach  the  point  of  application, 
the  amount  of  power  to  be  driven,  the  means  of 
supporting  such  driving  cable,  and  the  difficulty 
of  keeping  the  sheave  system  in  alignment  so  that 
it  would  work  satisfactorily.  Upon  the  assump- 
tion that  the  location  of  the  different  buildings  is 
similar  to  Fig.  618,  and  that  the  engine  is  placed 
close  to  the  boiler  as  represented  at  "  2, "  you  will 
note  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  change  the 
direction  of  the  rope  driven  at  least  four  times. 
The  first  case  in  leading  from  the  engine  driver 
up   in  a  more  or  less  vertical   direction,  then 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


339 


around  the  sheave  at  "6,"  from  thence  to  the 
second  sheave  in  the  power  room  as  represented 
at  "6,"  and  from  there  to  the  point  of  applica- 
tion. For  a  distance  of  94'  it  would  more  than 
likely  be  necessary  to  support  this  cable  at  some 


Baler  House 


Power  Houjt. 


Fig.l 


FIG.      617.       TRANSMISSION     OF     POWER. 


intermediate  point  between  the  two  buildings, 
so  that  there  would  be  an  additional  pair  of 
sheaves  at  that  point.  It  is  also  well  to  take  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  this  cable  will  be  af- 
fected more  or  less  by  the  weather,  by  expan- 
sion and  contraction.  In  the  event  that  it  is 
out  of  doors  there  will  be  the  matter  of  rust 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  as  well  as  snow  and 
ice  in  the  winter  weather.  The  efficiency  of  such 
a  method  would  be  largely  dependent  upon  the 
local  conditions  and  the  care  with  which  the  dif- 
ferent sheave  pulleys  were  aligned.  The  main- 
tenance would  depend  largely  upon  the  amount 
of  power  to  be  transmitted  and  the  care  that  the 
system  was  given  after  the  first  installation. 

Another  method  for  this  class  of  transmis- 
sion, albeit  a  little  more  expensive  in  first  cost, 
would  be  to  use  electrical  transmission.  By  this 
method  it  would  be  possible  to  place  the  engine 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  boiler  and  get  rid  of 
the  50  per  cent  loss  in  condensation,  then  by 
driving  the  generator  from  the  engine  the  power 
could   be   distributed   bv   wires  to   the   various 


Boiler 

Engim. 

Shaft. 

Cable 

Cable  Shisive 

Saw. 

Pump 

13  Cutting  Box 

14  Corn  Grindet: 


Potver   Room 


FI3.      618.       TRANSMTSSION     OF     POWER. 


Fig.Z 


1  Boiler. 

£  Engine. 

3  Line  Shaft. 

7  Generator. 

6  Motor. 

9  Main  Line. 

10  Branch  Lines. 

11  -Saw. 

12  Pump. 

13  Cutting  Box. 

14  Corn  Grinder. 


FIG.      619.       TRANSMISSION     OF     POWER. 


Fig  3 


340 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


points  of  application  as  desired.  At  these  dif- 
ferent points  a  motor  could  be  used,  set  in  any 
position  most  applicable  to  the  machine  driven 
irrespective  of  the  relative  position  of  the  en- 
gine or  boiler  plant.  Such  an  installation  is  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  619  showing  the  engine  located 
at  "  2  "  and  the  generator  belted  from  the  engine 
as  illustrated  by  ' '  7. "  The  line  wire  can  be  led 
through  any  number  of  different  turns  to  the 
various  points  of  application.  At  these  different 
points  it  is  customary  to  arrange  suitable  junc- 
tion boxes  so  that  the  motor  can  be  connected 
readily  and  the  power  obtained  without  further 
delay. 

There  is  the  additional  advantage  that  light 
can  be  obtained  from  the  same  line  wire  as  used 
for  power  purposes.  In  Fig.  619  the  main  line 
is  represented  by  "9,"  while  branch  circuits  can 
be  led  off  at  any  desired  point  as  represented 
at  "10."  In  some  cases  it  has  been  found  de- 
sirable to  use  a  portable  motor  in  place  of  the 
stationary  motor  represented  at  "8,"  which  can 
be  moved  from  one  machine  to  another  and  con- 
nected direct  by  belt,  replacing  the  line  shaft 
''3."  This  is  especially  desirable  where  there  is 
any  of  the  machinery  to  be  driven  about  the 
various  barnyards  for  such  applications  as  cut- 
ting ensilage  or  threshing.  Taking  into  consid- 
eration the  various  advantages  of  electrical  trans- 
mission, many  think  that  it  more  than  compen- 
sates for  the  additional  first  cost  over  the  other 
method  of  rope  transmission, 

LIGHT  AND  HEAT  BY  ELECTRICITY. 

While  it  is  entirely  feasible  to  heat  buildings 
by  electricity  it  is  not  practical  because  of  the 
large  first  cost,  unless  a  water-power  of  consid- 
erable size  is  available  for  large  and  cheap  power. 

The  cost  of  operating  a  small  steam,  gasoline 
or  kerosene  plant  for  the  sole  purpose  of  gen- 
erating heat  by  electricity  will  be  altogether  too 
expensive  to  consider.  It  is  on  the  other  hand 
entirely  practicable  to  light  small  homes  from 
such  small  electric  plants.  Take  for  instance 
an  eight-room  house  requiring  say  about  twelve 
16-candle-power  incandescent  lights.  This  would 
require  about  a  one-horsepower  outfit  to  oper- 
ate, and  figuring  gasoline  at  20  cents  per  gallon 
for  operating  the  gasoline  engine  the  cost  of 
these  12  lights  per  hour  will  be  approximately 
21/^  cents  total.  The  combined  engine  and 
dynamo  for  this  equipment  will  cost  about  $175. 

Assuming  that  the  house  is  not  wired  and  that 
it  would  have  to  be  wired  throughout,  the  wire, 
drop  cords  and  lamps  would  cost  about  $40,  and 
if  the  little  power  station  were  located  some  dis- 
tance  from   the    dwelling   an   addition    of   $40 


might  be  considered  for  wire  and  installation 
of  the  power  circuit,  thus  making  the  total  cost 
of  the  outfit  installed,  ready  for  operation,  about 
$250.  This  may  be  slightly  excessive  but  is  ap- 
proximate. 

Ordinarily,  however,  the  cheaper  plan  would 
be  to  install  a  larger  outfit,  say  at  least  6-horse- 
power  combined  engine  and  dynamo.  This  would 
cost  about  $400  and  would  furnish  all  the  lights 
needed  for  the  home  and  barns,  and  if  there  are 
neighbors  they  could  also  be  furnished  with  elec- 
tric lights  for  their  houses  and  barns.  There 
would  also  be  adequate  power  for  operating  small 
machines  in  the  barns,  so  that  by  the  addition 
of  one  small  portable  motor,  much  of  the  ma- 
chinery about  the  place  could  be  operated. 

PROPER  SPEEDS  FOR  LINE  SHAFTS. 

In  figuring  out  the  arrangement  for  the  trans- 
mission mechanisms  for  the  operation  of  groups 
of  machinery  in  barns  and  elsewhere  one  of  the 
first  questions  arising  is.  What  is  the  proper 
speed  for  the  line  shafts  and  how  shall  it  be 
figured  ?  Custom  varies  somewhat  on  this  point, 
depending  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  class  of 
machinery  that  is  to  be  operated,  though  of 
course  all  is  governed  by  fixed  rules.  If  the 
machinery  to  be  operated  is  slow-moving  the  line 
shafting  should  operate  at  slow  speed  so  as  not 
to  recjuire  too  large  diameter  in  pulleys,  giving 
to  the  operative  machines  their  correct  speeds. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  operating  high-speed  ma- 
chinery a  higher  speed  may  be  tolerated  on  the 
line  shafting,  thus  attaining  the  same  end- 
that  of  keeping  the  pulleys  as  near  uniform  or 
of  the  same  diameter  as  possible. 

For  farm  use  the  ordinary  use  for  line  shaft- 
ing should  be  from  150  to  200  revolutions  per 
minute,  while  on  the  other  hand,  for  figuring 
the  operation  of  machines  in  woodworking  fac- 
tories, the  speed  of  the  line  shafts  might  safely 
run  up  as  high  as  500  or  600.  The  slower  the 
possible  speed  the  less  rigid  the  equipment  need 
be,  provided  the  amount  of  power  to  be  trans- 
mitted is  not  relatively  large.  , ,  . 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  line  shaft- 
ing be  put  in  perfect  alignment  and  that  all 
bearings  or  hangers  be  securely  anchored  to  firm 
supports.  Any  misalignment  causes  loss  of 
power  and  tends  to  cause  vibration,  which  is 
transmitted  to  the  building.  This  vibration  is  not 
only  detrimental  to  the  line  shafting  in  causing 
it  to  loosen  up  its  anchorage  and  in  throwing  off 
the  belts  while  in  operation,  but  also  tends  to 
deteriorate  the  building.  Upon  tests  it  has  been 
found  in  factories  where  the  line  shafting  was 
not  kept  in  perfect  alignment  that  from  50  per 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


341 


cent  to  75  per  cent  of  the  power  generated  at  the 
engine  was  consumed  in  driving  the  line  shafting 
and  belting  and  only  25  per  cent  to  50  per  cent 
actually  used  in  doing  useful  work. 

The  hangers  should  be  spaced  not  less  than  8' 
apart  and  when  possible  the  pulleys  should  be 
put  close  to  a  hanger.  This*  is  done  in  order  to 
keep  the  shaft  from  vibrating  or  sagging  and  so 
as  to  keep  it  in  perfect  alignment. 

In  laying  out  line  shafting  and  belting  too 
much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  laying  out  the 
pulleys  and  belting.  The  life  of  a  belt  depends 
among  other  things  upon  the  rate  of  travel  and 
the  tension  or  strain  per  square  inch  of  section. 
The  faster  the  belt  travels  the  quicker  it  wears 
out,  the  same  as  any  other  piece  of  moving  ma- 
chinery, and  the  heavier  the  strain  it  is  sub- 
jected to  the  quicker  it  deteriorates. 

For  ordinary  work  the  belt  speed  used  may 
be  anywhere  up  to  4,000  feet  per  minute.  In 
high-speed  machinery  in  machine  shop  equip- 
ments belt  speeds  as  high  as  6,000  feet  and  7,- 
000  feet  are  permissible,  but  for  ordinary  work 
3,000  to.  4,000  feet  is  the  common  and  the  bet- 
ter practice.  The  belt  speed  is  found  by  mul- 
tiplying the  circumference  of  the  pulley  in  feet 
by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the 
pulley.  The  circumference  of  a  pulley  is  found 
by  multiplying  its  diameter  in  inches  by  3.14 
and  dividing  by  12.  The  answer  will  be  the  cir- 
cumference in  feet. 

Using  pulleys  of  ample  face  so  as  to  use  Avide 
belting  reduces  the  strain  per  square  inch  of 
suction,  which  adds  to  the  life  of  the  belt  and 
also  to  the  life  of  the  machinery  by  reducing 
the  pressure  against  the  bearings  which  pro- 
duces less  friction  and  requires  less  oil  to  keep 
them  properly  lubricated. 

In  general,  as  large  pulleys  should  be  used 
as  possible  and  yet  keep  within  the  speed  of  the 
belting  given  above.  This  is  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  belts  running  over  too  small  diameters 
which  cause  them  to  wear  out  quickly  by  being 
rapidly  bent  forward  and  backward  over  small 
diameters.  Wherever  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it, 
the  belts  should  be  bent  only  in  one  direction, 
as  the  alternate  bending  of  belts  first  in  one  di- 
rection and  then  in  the  other  very  soon  wears 
them  out. 

Crossing  a  belt  should  also  be  avoided  be- 
cause of  the  uneven  strain  that  is  brought  to 
bear  on  the  outer  edges  of  the  belt  which  tends 
to  shorten  its  life. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  driving  and 
driven  pulleys  are  not  placed  too  close  together 
so  as  to  get  too  short  belt  centers.  The  longer 
the  distance  to  belt  centers  the  more  arc  of  con- 


tact the  belting  has  on  the  pulleys  and  the  less 
tension  will  have  to  be  maintained  on  the  belt- 
ing in  order  to  have  it  transmit  the  power.  A 
rule  that  is  generally  used  for  ordinary  work 
is  that  a  belt  1"  wide  running  at  1.000  feet  a 
minute  will  transmit  one  horsepower. 

SIZES  AND  SPEEDS  OF  PULLEYS. 

In  arranging  groups  of  machinery  for  opera- 
tion there  is  nothing  more  essential  than  a  thor- 
ough understanding  of  the  relationship  of  the 
pulleys  to  one  another,  and  the  proper  speeds  at 
Avliich  they  should  operate. 

There  are  several  ways  of  figuring  the  re- 
quired diameter  of  pulleys.  A  simple  rule  that 
is  quite  generally  used  by  engineers,  is  to  mul- 
tiply the  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  driving 
pulley  by  the  diameter  of  the  driving  pulley, 
and  divide  this  result  by  the  revolution  per 
minute  of  the  driven  pulley,  the  result  giving 
the  diameter  of  pulley  required;  or  if  the  revo- 
lution per  minute  of  the  driven  pulley  is  un- 
known divide  by  its  diameter,  the  result  giving 
the  revolutions  per  minute.  For  example :  Given 
a  traction  engine  whose  driving  shaft  is  run  at 
225  revolutions  per  minute,  fitted  with  a  driving 
pulley  38",  required  to  know  what  size  pulley 
shall  we  put  on  a  feed  mill,  specified  by  its  man 
ufacturer  to  run  at  975  revolutions  per  minute. 
"We  multiply  225  by  38  and  divide  by  975,  which 
gives  us  8.77"  as  the  diameter  of  the  pulley  for 
the  feed  mill.  If  on  the  other  hand,  the  mill 
was  already  equipped  with  an  8"  pulley,  and  we 
wished  to  know  how  fast  the  engine  mentioned 
would  drive  the  mill  with  tliat  pulley,  we  would 
multiply  225  by  38  and  divide  by  8,  which  would 
give  us  1,069  as  the  speed  at  which  the  mill  would 
run  when  thus  equipped. 

This  way  of  figuring  does  not  take  into  ac- 
count any  slippage  of  the  belts  on  the  pulleys. 
There  is  always  a  certain  amount  of  this  slip- 
page of  belts  and  for  ordinary  work  an  allow- 
ance of  from  1  to  5  per  cent  for  slippage  is 
made,  although  in  extreme  cases  there  may  be 
a  great  deal  more. 

In  the  case  cited  above,  8.77"  is  not  a  stand- 
ard commercial  size  for  a  pullej'  and  if  we  allow 
about  3  per  cent  for  slippage,  this  will  give  us 
a  pulley  of  8I/2"  diameter  as  the  proper  size  to 
be  placed  upon  the  mill,  and  also  bring  it  to  a 
standard  size  that  can  be  bought  anywhere  from 
stock.  It  is  always  desirable  in  figuring  ma- 
chinery equipments  that  so  far  as  possilile  abso- 
lutely standard  stock  be  used,  thus  avoiding  vex-  • 
atious  delays  in  obtaining  the  parts  required 
from  time  to  time,  either  for  the  original  ec^uip- 
ment  or  for  repairs  to  same. 


342 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


ATTACHING  PUMP  TO  POWER. 

To  determine  what  size  shafting  should  be 
used  to  transmit  power  from  a  six-horsepower 
gasoline  engine  to  mill  and  other  machinery  16 
feet  or  less  distant,  and  what  width  of  pulley 
and  belting  is  required,  what  is  the  most  prac- 
ticable method  of  attaching  to  pump  about  75 
feet  distant  from  engine  and  powerhouse,  as- 
suming the  well  being  hand-dug,  with  water 
less  than  20  feet  from  surface,  pump  cylinder 
3 1/2  inches.  The  best  method  of  obtaining  the 
result  desired  would  largely  depend  on  local 
conditions.  On  the  assumption  of  the  ground 
being  practically  level,  the  most  practical  meth- 
od would  be  to  remove  the  pump  to  power-room 
where  pump  jack  could  be  operated  direct  from 
line  shaft.  This  would  necessitate  placing  a  dry 
well  underneath  the  power-room  of  sufficient 
depth  so  that  the  pipe  leading  from  pump  cylin- 
der to  the  well  would  be  below  the  frost  line. 
Again  assuming  that  this  depth  would  be  6',  this 
would  make  the  pump  cylinder  only  14'  above 
the  water  level  in  the  well,  under  which  condi- 
tions the  pump  should  work  entirely  satisfac- 
tory providing  one  is  careful  to  get  the  suction 
line  air-tight.  This  method  would  work  satis- 
factorily until  the  water  level  in  the  well  dropped 


tory,  and  the  only  question  would  be  in  getting 
the  pipe  line  from  the  cylinder  to  the  well  air- 
tight. In  order  to  do  this,  all  the  joints  should 
be  leaded  and  after  tightened  as  tight  as  practi- 
cable, it  would  not  be  a  bad  idea  to  coat  them 
over  with  asphalt. 

Relative  to  the  size  shaft  to  be  used  for  trans- 
mitting 6-HP,  we  would  recommend  1  7-16' 
with  hangers  placed  not  to  exceed  every  8'.  The 
size  of  belting  would  depend  somewhat  on  the 
speed  of  the  engine  as  well  as  the  diameter  of 
the  pulley.  It  is  quite  likely  that  a  6"  belt 
would  meet  the  requirements. 


In  Fig.  620  A  represents  an  end  view  of  posts 
which  are  made  of  2"  x  4"  14'  long  bolted  onto 
posts  put  in  the  ground,  good  and  solid.  B  is 
a  triangle  made  of  heavy  cast  iron  and  especial- 
ly for  this  purpose  and  bolted  in  at  top  of  A. 
C  is  a  side  view  of  wires  and  triangles.  D  is 
made  of  wood  and  iron,  to  which  the  wire  is 
clamped  fast,  and  will  not  wear  the  wire.  E  is 
pump  jack  run  from  engine  by  a  belt,  and  when 
the  pitman  wheel  goes  around  that  moves  the 
triangles  and  the  wires  go  back  and  forth,  thus 
moving  the"  pump  rod  up  and  down,  i^  is  a 
rod  attached  to  pump  jack.  This  could  be  at- 
tached to  a  windmill  rod  and  run  the  pump  just 


4 


ij 

FIG.    62  0. 


1.1  ul 

TRI.\NGLES    IN    CONNECTING    PUMP    TO    POWER. 


8',  or  the  total  distance  from  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  to  the  water  level  would  not  exceed  22'. 

In  the  event  that  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the 
pump  at  the  well,  the  method  of  drive  would 
depend  largely  on  the  relative  position  of  line 
shaft  in  power-room  to  that  of  the  well  and  as 
to  whether  the  pump  jack  would  be  located  in 
power-room  or  at  the  well.  In  the  event  that 
the  pump  jack  was  located  at  the  pump,  the 
power  could  be  transmitted  by  flexible  cable 
over  suitable  sheaves  from  the  line  shaft.  This 
cable  should  be  supported  at  least  every  40'.  In 
case  the  pump  jack  is  located  in  power-room, 
the  reciprocating  motion  can  be  transferred  to 
the  pump  by  -aneans  of  angle  levers  and  flexible 
cable. 

The  vacuum  method,  as  suggested  in  the  first 
place,  we  think  would  be  much  more  satisfac- 


the  same.  6^  is  a  turnbuckle  with  which  to 
tighten  wires.  Use  a  galvanized  wire  cable  14" 
or  5-16"  made  of  seven  wires  twisted  together. 

GEARING  A  PUMP  TO  A  WINDMILL. 

The  problem  of  pumping  water  by  means  of 
a  windmill  that  is  located  some  distance  from 
the  well  is  not  always  easy  of  a  satisfactory  so- 
lution, especially  with  any  light,  cheap  ecjuip- 
ment.  For  example :  Suppose  we  had  a  14' 
wheel  and  w^ooden  tower  and  want  to  pump  at 
about  125'  from  the  tower.  Water  can  be  had 
at  18'  deep  in  quicksand. 

First:  To  locate  the  pump  at  the  windmill, 
which  could  be  located  as  desired  at  one  end  of 
the  granary.  Then  connect  this  pump  with  the 
well  by  means  of  piping  that  is  laid  in  the  ground 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


343 


of  sufificient  depth  to  protect  it  from  frost,  the 
piping  being  carefully  laid  so  as  to  prevent  its 
getting  out  of  alignment  and  developing  any 
possibility  of  leaks. 

This  would  work  satisfactorily  as  long  as  the 
suction  did  not  exceed  25',  depending  to  some 
extent,  however,  upon  the  altitude  of  the  place 
where  the  pump  is  located. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  pump  water  from  more 
than  one  well  this  can  be  accomplished  by  piping 
to  each  well  and  putting  a  cut-off  valve  on  each 
line  of  suction  pipe  installed. 

In  order  to  have  this  eciuipment  work  satisfac- 
torily it  is  of  utmost  importance  that  good  ma- 
terial be  used  and  that  the  possibility  of  leaks  in 
the  pipe  be  prevented,  as  any  small  leak  in  the 
piping  would  destroy  the  vacuum  and  would 
cause  the  e(|uipment  to  work  imperfectly. 

Second :  Another  method  would  be  to  equip 
the  windmill  with  gearing  instead  of  the  ordi- 
nary reciprocating  motion.  (Fig.  621.)  The 
power  could  then  be  transmitted  to  the  pumps 
located  at  the  different  wells  by  means  of  tum- 
bling rods  or  shafting.  The  power  from  the 
windmill  to  these    tumbling    rods    or    shafting 


could  be  transmitted  by  bevel  gears  at  the  wind- 
mill end,  and  at  the  other  end  the  power  would 
be  transmitted  from  the  tumbling  rods  or  shaft- 
ing by  means  of  a  pump  head  or  crank  and  con- 
necting rod. 

The  shafting  of  the  transmitting  mechanism 
can  be  placed  in  a  shallow  covered  trench,  care 
l)eing  taken  to  see  that  the  bearings  are  given 
a  good  foundation  and  that  it  is  in  good  align- 
ment. In  this  way  the  transmitting  mechanism 
would  not  encumber  the  ground  and  would  be 
less  liable  to  be  injured  and  misplaced  than 
when  placed  on  top  of  the  ground  or  on  scaf- 
folds overhead. 

There  would  be  some  lost  motion  and  some 
lost  power  in  this  kind  of  mechanism,  due  to  the 
friction  of  the  shafting  in  the  bearings  and  gear- 
ing. The  amount  of  power  lost  would  depend 
to  a  large  extent  on  the  manner  in  which  the 
apparatus  was  installed. 

Third:  Where  the  windmill  is  already  in- 
stalled with  a  reciprocating  motion  an  installa- 
tion similar  to  the  second  could  be  used  by  e(iuip- 
ping  each  end  of  the  shaft  with  a  rocker  arm 
that  could  be  connected  with  the  pump  at  one 


FIG.    621.       GEARING    A    PUMP   TO    A    WINDMILL. 


344 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


end  and  the  windmill  at  the  other  by  means  of 
a  link.  In  this  kind  of  installation  it  is  ad- 
visable to  make  the  stroke  of  the  windmill  as 
long  as  possible  so  as  to  use  as  long  a  link  on 
that  end  as  it  is  possible  so  as  to  compensate  for 
the  lost  motion,  which  is  considerable  in  some 
cases. 

This  latter  equipment  would  most  likely  be 
cheaper  than  No.  2,  but  not  so  efficient,  and  we 
do  not  recommend  it,  as  it  is  at  best  short-lived. 

Fourth:  Where  the  farm  is  of  sufficient  size 
and  the  use  of  power  is  frequently  needed  for 
various  kinds  of  work,  a  small  kerosene  or  gaso- 
line engine  capable  of  delivering  such  power  is 
recommended  as  being  most  reliable.  Where  such 
power  is  installed  a  small  dynamo  for  furnish- 
ing electric  current  for  distribution  of  power  and 
for  lights  can  easily  be  installed.  The  question 
of  transmitting  power  to  any  part  of  the  farm 
is  a  very  simple  matter,  it  only  being  then  neces- 
sary to  have  one  or  more  motors,  as  the  case 
might  require,  that  can  be  used  from  place  to 
place  wherever  the  power  is  required,  the  motor 
driving  the  pumps,  feed  grinders  or  any  other 
machinery  by  means  of  a  short  belt. 

In  the  present  case,  if  an  electric  trolley  line 
is  in  the  neighborhood  and  available,  current 
could  be  taken  directly  from  this  for  the  power 
supply  for  the  motors  and  could  be  readily  dis- 
tributed wherever  needed. 

A  FARM  DAIRY  ROOM. 

Every  farmhouse  needs  three  things :  a  dairy- 
room — cool,  clean,  sanitary,  convenient — a  store 
of  ice  and  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  Fortu- 
nately all  of  these  can  easily  be  secured  in  one 
Iniilding,  and  that  may  be  a  very  sightly  and  even 
pleasing  building  in  appearance.  Fig.  622  shows 
a  concrete  structure  whose  walls  may  be  of  plain 
plaster  effect,  if  rough  all  the  better,  and  after- 
wards covered  with  vines  and  creepers.  Concrete 
walls  may  be  plastered  after  the  forms  are  taken 
away.  This  is  not  the  cheap  way,  nor  does  it  al- 
ways look  best.  They  may  be  etched  with  acid  to 
take  away  the  newness  and  rawness ;  this  gives  a 
very  pretty  effect.  Or  they  may  be  hammered  with 
a  rough-faced  hammer,  similar  to  what  cooks  use 
for  making  tender  beefsteak ;  this  also  gives  a  nice 
roughness.  The  plain  plaster  wall  looks  better, 
usually,  than  the  wall  made  of  imitation  stone. 
It  is  not  practicable  to  color  the  whole  mass  of 
concrete  to  imitate  brick,  since  it  would  take 
too  much  coloring  matter.  The  best  color  is  the 
dry  iron  ore  red.  It  might  be  put  on  as  a  wash 
after  the  wall  was  complete.  The  building  {Fig. 
622)  is  13'  X  13';  its  walls  are  6"  thick,  rein- 
forced with  steel.     The    walls    and    floors  take 


^ 


WATER  TANK 
concrete:  sides  REmtORCEO  WITH  STEEL 


REINEORCf^ 


ICE  HOUSE  12  "12 


--I2 

CONCRETE  FLOOR  57RONGLY  REINFORCED 


MILK  ts. 


f^  ROOM  I2«I2' 


jkii 


FIG.    622.       FARM    DAIRY    ROOM. 


DRAIN 


about  40  yards  of  material — that  is,  40  yards  of 
coarse  stuff  for  concrete  and  as  many  barrels  of 
cement.    Thus  in  regions  where  these  things  are 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


345 


at  hand  the  materials  for  the  concreting  will  cost 
less  than  $250,  not  counting  the  steel,  which 
will  probably  cost  about  $25.  Ample  reinforce- 
ment will  be  provided  for  the  walls  if  there  is 
a  vertical  y^'  rod  each  24"  of  wall,  and  a 
horizontal  one  of  the  same  diameter  for  each  foot 
of  height.  Build  up  to  the  level  of  the  bottom 
of  the  icehouse  floor  and  erect  also  a  pillar  of 
concrete,  well  reinforced,  12"  x  12",  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  milkroom,  then  put  a  girder  across 
from  wall  to  wall  of  strongly  reinforced  concrete, 
the  girder  8"  thick  and  12"  deep.  There  should 
be  two  rods  in  the  underside  of  this  girder,  each 
one  lYo"  in  diameter,  and  the  ends  turned  up 
into  the  thickness  of  the  wall  a  few  inches.  These 
will  be  all  the  heavy  reinforcing  irons  needed. 
Over  this  girder  lay  the  concrete  floor  to  hold  the 
ice.  It  must  be  well  reinforced.  Use  i/o"  steel 
bars,  the  best  are  the  corrugated  sort,  and  space 
them  8"  apart  in  each  direction,  crossing  each 
other.  Lay  these  bars  on  the  wooden  floor,  but 
hold  them  up  from  it  about  %"  by  driving  little 
nails  under  them.  On  them  lay  concrete  floor 
6"  thick.  Make  it  of  good  strong  concrete,  using 
about  1  part  cement,  2  parts  clean  coarse  sand 
and  5  parts  clean  coarse  gravel  or  broken  stone. 
Finish  it  with  a  face  of  1"  good  stuff  that  will 
make  it  water-tight  and  smooth.  There  will  be 
need  of  putting  through  this  floor  three  pipes; 
they  should  be  in  the  corners,  one  for  filling  the 
water  tank,  one  for  overflow  of  water  tank,  one 
for  drainage  of  the  iceroom.  This  latter  may 
as  well  be  over  the  water  trough  for  the  milk. 

When  the  floor  is  laid  the  walls  may  rise  above 
it  to  the  base  of  the  arch  under  the  water  tank. 
Here  a  very  thorough  reinforcement  must  be 
given  so  that  the  arch  will  not  by  its  thrust  bulge 
the  walls.  The  thickness  of  the  arch  need  be  no 
more  than  6"  and  the  reinforcement  as  for  the 
floor  below.  When  the  arch  is  complete  the  walls 
will  rise  on  up  to  the  top  of  the  structure,  which 
is  designed  to  be  about  9';  it  may  be  less.  A 
simple  concrete  cornice  finishes  the  tower,  which 
may  have  a  roof  provided  or  not  as  the  user 
prefers.  Let  the  walls  of  the  water  tank  be 
thoroughly  w^ell  reinforced,  using  a  14"  bar  for 
each  6"  of  vertical  rise ;  then  there  will  be  no 
fear  of  cracks  ever  forming  to  make  leaks.  If 
the  water  is  used  in  the  house  a  roof  is  advisable. 
INlake  a  simple  pyramidal  roof  of  rather  sharp 
pitch  to  give  a  nice  finish  to  the  tower.  When 
complete  there  is  a  fine  cool  milkroom,  partly 
under  ground,  with  its  water  trough  for  cans,  and 
a  constant  drip  of  ice  water  into  it ;  an  icehouse 
above  holding  a  cube  of  ice  10'  square,  sawdust 
being  packed  between  the  ice  and  the  walls,  and 
high  over  that  a  great  supply  of  water  for  house, 
yard  or  lawn.  The  cost  of  it  all  in  good  finish 
should  be  between  $500  and  $600. 


A  CHEAP  DRILL  FOR  BORING  WELLS. 

"Give  instructions  and  diagram  for  building 
and  operating  a  drill  that  will  drill  a  well  3"  in 
diameter  and  50'  to  75'  deep  with  a  horse.  I 
would  like  something  of  the  kind,  not  expensive, 
which  I  could  use  at  odd  times  to  drill  for 
water. ' ' 

Answering,  a  correspondent  of  The  Gazette 
says :  "No  mention  is  made  of  the  nature  of  the 
soil  or  rock  in  which  he  expects  to  sink  his  well. 
While  it  is  entirely  practical  to  do  this  drilling 
by  means  of  horse-power  for  small  diameters  we 
would  doubt  the  advisability  of  attempting  to 
use  a  drill  3"  in  diameter  with  this  form  of 
power.  It  is  eustomarv  to  use  a  diameter  of 
from  11^"  to  11/2".     The  3"  drill  could  be  used, 


FIG.    623.       DRILL  FOR  BORING   WELLS. 


but  would  be  rather  heavy  to  handle  by  such  a 
method  as  we  would  recommend.  The  method 
customarily  used  for  drilling  wells  of  this  type 
by  means  of  horse-power  is  to  use  a  tripod  der- 
rick with  sheave  wheel  suspended  at  the  top  of 
the  derrick  over  the  center  of  the  well.  A  rope 
is  run  down  from  the  clevis  in  the  top  of  drill 
rod  over  the  sheave  and  wound  around  a  drum 
mounted  between  the  two  outer  legs  of  the  tripod. 
One  or  two  turns  of  the  rope  is  taken  around 
the  drum.  The  drum  is  driven  direct  from  the 
tumbling  shaft  of  the  horse-power  and  runs 
continuously  in  one  direction.  When  it  is  de- 
sired to  lift  the  drill  it  is  customary  for  the 
operator  to  tighten  the  rope  running  around  tbe 


346 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


drum  which  causes  the  drill  to  be  raised.  When 
it  is  raised  to  a  sufficient  height  it  is  allowed  to 
drop  by  loosening  the  rope,  furnishing  the  neces- 
sary blow  for  doing  the  drilling.  The  drill  at  the 
same  time  is  turned  slightly  at  each  blow  so  as 
to  make  the  hole  round.  It  is  customary  to  use 
gas  pipe  for  the  drill  rod  with  the  exception  of 
18"  to  2'  of  the  point  which  is  of  drill  steel, 
the  gas  pipe  making  the  drill  rod  much  lighter. 
The  sketch  in  Fig.  623  will  be  self-explanatory 
and  the  device  can  be  rigged  up  at  slight  ex- 
pense. ' ' 

HOW  TO  HEAT  WATER  IN  A  TANK. 

Tap  the  tank  in  the  bottom  near  the  center 
with  two  pipes,  %"  or  1"  pipe,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
624,  making  a  circuit,  build  a  small  fire  under 
the  pipes  where  the  turn  is  and  one  can  heat  a 
tank  with  very  little  fuel.  The  pipes  must  be  be- 
low the  frost  line  and  have  a  continuous  rise 
from  fire  to  tank.     As  the  water  warms  in  the 


SURFACE 


FIG.    624.       HEATING   WATER   IN   A  TANK. 

pipes  at  tlie  fire,  it  rises  through  the  upper  pipe 
into  the  tank  and  the  cold  water  follows  in,  thus 
making  a  circulation  which  will  continue  as  long 
as  the  fire  goes.  A  barrel  of  water  can  be  heated 
to  the  boiling  point  in  a  short  time  for  scalding 
hogs  in  the  same  way. 

DEVICE  FOR  TRAINING  HORNS. 

Fig.  625  shows  a  device  for  training  the  horns 
of  cattle.  Take  an  ordinary  piece  of  2"  x  4" 
about  2"  longer  than  from  tip  to  tip  of  horns; 
put  two  holes  near  each  end  at  the  base  of  the 
horns ;  also  put  a  staple  or  loop  in  each  edge  in 
the  center  to  fasten  one  string  around  the  neck. 


^ 


X 


\ 


Then  twist  two  strings  together  from  front  loop  to 
base  of  nose,  then  tie  around  the  nose.  Put  heavy 
cords  around  each  horn  and  tie  through  the 
2"  X  4".  Do  not  use  wire  for  loop  around  horn, 
as  it  will  indent  the  horn. 

COMPRESSED-AIR  WATER  SERVICE. 

An  Indiana  farmer  has  invented  a  novel  form 
of  compressed-air  water  service  system.  As 
water  in  wells  is  often  found  within  slight  dis- 
tance from  the  surface,  from  12'  to  30',  he  would 
dig  the  well  of  good  size  and  immerse  an  air- 
tight reservoir  directly  in  the  water.  This  would 
fill  by  merely  opening  a  valve,  and  the  water  he 
would  force  out  by  pumping  air  into  the  reser- 
voir. The  air  pump  could  be  located  anywhere 
and  connected  by  small  pipe.  Wind  or  gasoline 
would  work  the  pumps.    Fig.  626  shows  the  idea. 

In  order  to  have  a  continuous  flow  of  water 


AIR  PUMP 


OUTLET  PIPE 


no.    625.       DEVICE    FOR    TRAINING    HORNS. 


FIG.    62  G.       COMPRES.SLD-AIR    WATER    SE;;VICE. 

there  should  be  two  of  these  reservoirs,  and  if 
above  them  there  was  a  separate  reservoir  for 
compressed  air  all  the  better,  since  the  windmill 
would  not  always  operate.  The  main  difficulties 
are  two :  it  is  costly  to  open  a  large  well  and 
most  modern  wells  are  drilled  ones,  and  air  is 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


347 


not  an  easy  thing  to  pump  with  a  windmill,  since 
a  slow  motion  is  wasteful  in  operating  an  air 
pump. 

BOX-STALLS  ON  FAIRGROUNDS. 

For  fairground  stalls,  where  only  one  animal 
is  to  be  placed  in  a  stall,  10'  x  12'  is  large 
enough,  except  perhaps  for  the  largest  stallions 
a  few  stalls  12'  x  12'  should  be  provided.  The 
foundation  should  be  of  concrete  blocks  molded 
in  place,  on  which  the  6"  x  6"  posts  are  set.  If 
great  cheapness  is  sought  these  posts  may  be 
4"  X  4";  they  will  answer  nearly  as  well.  The 
height  at  rear  of  stall  need  be  no  more  than  8' 
and  of  front  10',  though  the  cost  of  adding  a  foot 
to  these  heights  would  be  little  and  the  stalls 
more  airy  and  cool.  The  roof  need  have  slight 
slant,  being  covered  with  tarred  roofing  material. 
Let  there  be  solid  divisions  between  the  stalls, 
made  of  planking  2"  thick  to  a  height  of  5', 
above  that  slatted  partitions  to  keep  horses  from 
fighting  each  other.  The  natural  earth  or  hard 
clay  is  best  for  floors ;  let  it  be  raised  about  12" 
above  the  adjacent  ground  to  make  sure  of  dry- 
ness during  fairground  deluges.    The  projecting 

CND   ELEVATION 


2-5  5 


^Bl}'B-l4 


PaST6«6-8HIGH 


CONCRETE  BLOCK 


FL00R_lA80VESR0UNp 
CONCRETE  BLOCK 


.      1^ 
6«6P0ST121i)N6SETIN 
CONCRETE 


BOX  STALl  10x12 


BOX  STALL  10Vl2 


BOX  STALL  10'12 


FIG.   62'; 


DUTCH  DOOR 


BOX-STALLS    ON    FAIRGROUNDS. 


roof  in  front  covers  5'  (shown  in  Fig.  627)  and 
will  be  much  appreciated  by  fairground  visitors. 
Let  all  doors  be  sawed  in  two,  horizontally,  so 


that  the  upper  halves  may  be  opened  to  permit 
air  to  enter  and  visitors  to  see  the  animals  with- 
in. The  front  should  not  be  boarded  clear  to 
the  roof,  at  least  there  should  be  abundant 
slatted  opening  to  allow  of  free  circulation  of  air. 

PIVOTED  BARN  WINDOW. 

This  plan  (shown  in  Fig.  628)  permits  the 
opening  of  windows  at  the  top.  There  is  a  weight 
for  holding  the  window  closed  and  a  rope  for 
pulling  open.    An  ordinary  cleat  can  be  fastened 


. 

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■~---^^, 

PULLEY 

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S 

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of 

^RO 

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1^1 

RO 

'E 

o 

1^1 

Q 

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WEIGHT 


FIG.     628.       PIVOTED     BARN     WINDOW. 


348 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


conveniently  allowing  for  a  couple  of  turns  of 
the  rope  in  order  to  hold  the  window  open.  The 
iron  bracket  projecting  from  sash  permits  the 
pulley  to  draw  the  window  clear  shut. 

CARRIER  FOR  A  HAY  BARN. 

The  sketch  {Fig.  630)  is  of  a  device  for  pull- 
ing a  hay  carrier  and  fork  back.  Use  a  No.  9 
wire  from  the   end  of  the   track  to   the  peak; 


type  of  livery  barn  is  well  adapted  to  small 
towns.  Although  concrete  is  used  in  such  build- 
ings, there  is  a  well-founded  prejudice  against 
this  material  as  a  floor  for  livery  barns." 

A  SCALE  LOT  AND  DIPPING  TANK. 

The  scale  lot  shown  in  Fig.  631  is  60'  x  120' 
divided  as  shown.  Though  the  size  is  small  it 
will  be  found  to  hold  a  good  many  animals,  and 


STAKE 


HAY  CARRIER 

FIG.     630.       CARRIER    FOR    A    HAY    BARN. 


stretch  tight.  Fasten  a  rope  to  the  carrier  and 
pass  it  through  the  pulley  and  fasten  it  to 
pulley  and  weight.  The  post  should  be  set 
a  little  farther  from  the  end  of  the  track  than  the 
barn  is  long. 

PLAN  FOR  A  SMALL  LIVERY  STABLE. 

Answering  an  inquirer  wishing  a  plan  for  a 
livery  stable  and  stallion  barn  combined,  with 
three  large  box-stalls,  an  office  with  stairway  and 
an  outer  stairway  to  the  second  floor,  where  are 
to  be  three  living  rooms,  the  size  of  the  barn  to 
by  40'  X  56',  a  correspondent  of  The  Gazette 
offers  the  subjoined: 

"The  accompanying  sketch  {Fig.  629)  may 
serve  the  purpose.  The  building  is  constructed 
with  14'  bents,  thus  giving  between  posts  three 
stalls,  each  14'  x  14'.  There  will  also  be  built 
12  stalls,  4'  8"  X  10',  with  a  passageway  16'  wide 
through  the  middle.  The  arrangement  of  the  liv- 
ing rooms  upstairs  may  be  left  to  the  fancy  of  the 
builder.  Hay  may  be  taken  in  at  the  rear.  If 
baled  hay  is  used  the  danger  of  fire  is  somewhat 
decreased  and  loft  room  saved.  Thus  also  there 
will  be  a  bridge  besides  the  box-stalls,  up  which 
buggies  may  be  taken  for  storage  purposes.   This 


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FIG.      629.       SMALL     LIVERY     STABLE. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


349 


an  additional  large  pen  may  be  added  at  the 
back  if  needed.  The  dipping  tank  in  connection 
with  it  is  12"  wide  at  the  bottom,  amply  wide 
for  the  feet  of  any  animal  dipped  in  America,  8' 
deep  and  4'  wide  at  top.  This  gives  it  a  width 
of  36"  at  a  depth  of  5'.  The  hip  bones  of  a 
large  cow  are  about  5'  from  the  earth,  and  no 
one  has  a  cow  wider  than  36"  there.  Of  course 
cows  are  somewhat  wider  below,  but  the  width  is 


barrels  of  cement  all  told.  The  tank  for  use  of 
hogs  will  work  very  well,  a  trifle  wide,  and  some 
may  possibly  turn  wrong  end  to,  but  on  the 
whole  it  will  prove  satisfactory. 

POWER  FOR  FARM  PURPOSES. 

There  is  nothing  of  more  interest  to  the  farm- 
er today  than  the  question  of  suitable  power  for 


SCALE  LOT 


FIG.    631.       A    DIPPIXG    TANK    AND    SCALE    LOT. 


ample  for  anything  that  would  be  passed  through 
a  dipping  vat.  As  to  depth,  8'  is  scant,  and  for 
range  dipping  add  2',  making  it  10',  but  for  the 
farm  it  will  suffice,  filling  the  vat  6'  and  allowing 
24"  for  splashway.  The  sides  may  also  be  raised 
very  easily  an  additional  foot  by  use  of  boards, 
which,  while  not  having  water-tight  joint  with 
the  concrete,  will  yet  throw  back  any  splashed 
liquid.  To  get  the  cattle  in,  the  device  of  a 
sheet  of  steel  for  them  to  slide  on  is  desirable. 
This  steel  when  wet  is  slippery  enough.  To  re- 
strain the  cattle  from  emerging  too  soon  a  gate 
may  be  dropped  in  for  a  moment,  then  raised, 
though  for  ordinary  dipping  if  the  animal  is 
completely  immersed  once  it  is  sufficient ;  they 
keep  wet  a  good  while  when  they  emerge.  The 
incline  must  be  very  rough  to  let  the  animals 
climb  out  with  no  slipping.  This  tank  is  30'  long 
over  all,  the  incline  16',  the  level  bottom  10'.  It 
should  be  made  of  concrete  6"  thick.  This  will 
require  about  8  cubic  yards  of  material,  and  as 
many  barrels  of  cement,  or  a  little  more,  say  10 


his  particular  requirements.  In  referring  to  all 
power  questions,  it  is  customary  to  make  com- 
parison in  the  term  known  as  horsepower,  which 
is  the  unit  of  comparison  for  power  the  same 
as  we  have  the  pound  as  a  unit  of  weight  and 
the  foot  as  a  unit  of  length.  This  term,  horse- 
power, was  originally  supposed  to  be  equivalent 
to  the  power  of  one  horse  and  is  the  force  neces- 
sary to  raise  33,000  pounds  one  foot  in  one 
minute.  Or,  it  is  the  product  of  the  weight,  mul- 
tiplied by  the  distance  per  minute  through  which 
this  weight  acts,  divided  by  33,000.  For  in- 
stance, one  horsepower  would  be  capable  of  lift- 
ing 33,000  pounds  one  foot  per  minute,  or  it 
would  be  capable  of  lifting  66,000  pounds  one- 
half  foot  per  minute.  This  gives  us  the  rule 
for  horsepower  as  follows : 

Horsepower=Weight  in  x  distance  in  feet  per  minute 

33000 

Power  for  useful  work  may  be  applied  in  a 
variety  of  different  ways.    For  instance,  it  may 


350 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


be  the  direct  lift  of  weight  similar  to  raising 
hay  with  a  hayfork;  it  may  be  the  belt  pull  as 
applied  to  the  circumference  of  a  pulley,  or  it 
may  be  the  steam  pressure  as  applied  to  piston 
liead  of  an  engine ;  but  in  all  cases  it  is  reduced 
to  the  same  basis  of  so  many  pounds  acting 
through  so  many  feet  per  minute. 

Though  it  was  originally  supposed  that  this 
amount  of  work  was  equivalent  to  one  horse- 
power, a  series  of  tests  have  been  made  show- 
ing that  a  horse  as  a  rule  is  hardly  capable  of 
this  amount  of  work,  it  depending,  however, 
upon  the  weight  of  the  horse  and  the  method 
of  hitching.  From  tests  made  it  is  indicated  that 
the  horse  is  capable  of  pulling  one-tenth  of  his 
weight  for  ten  hours,  and  the  average  walking 
speed  is  220  feet  per  minute.  From  this  it 
would  appear  that  the  weight  of  the  horse,  ex- 
erting one-tenth  of  his  weight  necessary  to  de- 
velop one  horsepower,  would  be  as  follows: 

Weight^ofhorse^^^Q_33QQQ 
Weight  of  horse'  '        =1500. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  average  draft  horse 
will  not  weight  this  amount  and  is  therefore  not 
capable  of  one  mechanical  horsepower  of  work. 

The  power  as  recjuired  for  various  farm  pur- 
poses may  be  divided  into  two  particular  classes. 
First  is  used  for  doing  various  outside  opera- 
tions re({uiring  the  propulsion  of  the  e(iuipment 
over  the  ground.  The  other  class  is  to  be  used 
for  imparting  motion  to  machines  which  remain 
in  one  position  during  their  process.  As  a  means 
of  the  first  class  of  power,  the  horse  is  the  more 
practicable  and  furnishes  more  than  nine-tenths 
of  the  power  used. 

Until  recent  years  there  was  not  much  atten- 
tion paid  to  the  power  as  furnished  by  the  horse, 
it  being  the  practice  to  call  upon  him  for  all 
he  was  capable  of.  As  a  result  in  many  cases 
he  was  greatly  abused.  In  recent  years  there 
has  been  considerable  valuable  information  col- 
lected by  several  of  the  universities  showing  the 
amount  of  power  required  for  the  operation  of 
different  farm  machines  as  well  as  data  on  the 
amount  of  feed  and  cost  of  same  for  keeping 
the  horse.  The  tests  show  that  as  a  rule  the 
average  horse  is  over-worked,  which  is  quite  evi- 
dent from  the  number  of  poor  horses  we  see 
through  the  country  during  the  busy  season. 
The  results  of  these  various  tests  are  certainly 
worthy  of  consideration  even  though  the  con- 
ditions are  not  the  same  as  we  would  have  on 
our  own  farm.  These  show  what  can  actually 
be  done  in  the  way  of  keep  for  a  team  of  horses 


under  reasonable  conditions  as  well  as  the  av- 
erage work  the  horse  is  capable  of  doing  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  weight  for  the  average  work- 
ing days  of  the  year. 

The  only  other  means  that  we  have  for  oper- 
ating the  portable  equipments  is  the  traction  en- 
gine or  the  electric  motor.  The  field  for  these 
is  limited  to  large  farms  where  it  is  advanta- 
geous to  use  gang  plows  and  other  large  tools  in 
proportion.  Where  there  is  a  large  area  to  be 
covered,  there  is  no  question  about  the  practi- 
cability and  the  advantage  of  operating  these 
large  equipments. 

The  study  of  power  as  applied  to  the  other 
class  of  stationary  machinery  is  much  further 
developed.  As  a  means  of  operating  these 
equipments  we  have  the  windmill,  the  tread  or 
sweep-power,  steam  engine,  internal  combustion 
engine  and  the  electric  motor.  The  windmill 
was  one  of  the  first  means  used  to  do  mechan- 
ical work.  Its  use  dates  back  as  much  as  1,000 
years.  This  was  first  used  by  the  Hollanders  for 
pumping  purposes.  The  Dutch  mill,  as  it  was 
termed,  was  a  crude  structure  consisting  of  main 
shaft  supporting  four  or  six  radiating  arms, 
each  carrying  a  light  framework  to  support  can- 
vas or  other  sail.  The  entire  wheelhouse  was 
rotated  to  face  the  wheel  up  to  the  wind.  These 
wheels  were  from  50  to  100  feet  in  diameter. 
There  was  not  much  study  given  to  utilizing  the 
wind  for  power  purposes  until  about  60  years 
ago  when  the  present  form  of  wheel  was  devel- 
oped, consisting  of  a  group  of  slats  mounted  so 
as  to  face  more  or  less  at  an  angle  to  the  wind, 
the  wheel  being  kept  faced  to  the  wind  by  means 
of  suitable  vane. 

There  have  been  numerous  methods  used  for 
governing  the  speed  of  the  wheels  so  that  they 
will  operate  satisfactorily  in  varying  winds.  The 
velocity  of  the  wind  varies  all  the  way  from 
one  mile  per  hour,  which  is  hardly  perceptible, 
to  100  miles,  which  is  the  velocity  of  a  tornado 
and  it  is  necessary  for  these  mills  to  take  care 
of  themselves  throughout  this  variation.  The 
horsepower  obtainable  from  windmills  is  greatly 
affected  by  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  which  is 
quite  variable  in  different  periods  of  the  year. 

The  most  practical  use  to  Avhich  windmills 
may  be  put  is  pumping,  but  they  have  been  used 
to  advantage  for  other  power  purposes  where 
only  a  limited  amount  of  power  is  required. 
The  great  advantage  of  the  windmill  over  other 
forms  of  power  is  its  low  cost  of  operation  as 
well  as  the  small  cost  of  keeping  it  in  repair. 
There  are  a  number  of  good  power  mills  in  the 
market  as  well  as  auxiliary  equipments  to  be  op- 
erated from  these  mills,  but  there  seems  to  be 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


351 


no  form  of  governor  is  used  in  connection  with 
these  mills  which  makes  it  possible  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  high-velocity  winds  and  to  favor 
the  mill  on  the  low  pressure.  That  is,  a  given 
mill  would  be  capable  of  much  more  work  when 
operating  in  a  fifteen-mile  wind  than  when  op- 
erating in  a  ten-mile  Avind,  but  there  is  no  means 
of  varying  the  quantity  of  work  applied  under 
the  two  different  conditions. 

There  is  also  quite  a  demand  for  a  constant 
speed  regulator  for  windmill-power  where  it 
is  desired  to  operate  constant  speed  machinery. 
This  would  make  them  useful  for  driving  gen- 
erators for  lighting  purposes  and  for  charging 
storage  battery.  There  have  been  a  few  regula- 
tors of  this  class  built,  but  they  have  never  come 
into  commercial  use.  It  would  appear  that 
tliere  would  be  considerable  demand  for  this  kind 
of  governor  if  a  suitable  one  were  placed  on  the 
market. 

The  use  of  the  tread  or  sweep-power  is  an 
easy  means  of  making  use  of  the  horse  for  driv- 
ing the  stationary  class  of  machinery.  For  light 
jobs  these  work  very  satisfactorily  and  make  a 
cheap  source  of  power.  It  also  enables  us  to 
utilize  the  horse  in  the  winter  season  where 
otherwise  he  might  be  standing  idle. 

The  development  of  the  internal  combustion 
engine  in  recent  years  makes  it  possible  for  the 
farmer  to  have  a  source  of  power  available  at 
reasonable  cost.  The  fact  that  they  can  be  start- 
ed on  short  notice  and  run  with  little  care  has 
led  to  their  adoption  for  this  class  of  service. 
Under  this  class  of  engine  come  all  engines 
Avhere  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  takes  place  in 
the  cylinder  acting  direct  against  the  piston 
head.  The  cost  of  the  fuel  consumed  varies 
according  to  location  and  price.  At  first  the 
majority  of  tliese  engines  were  of  the  gasoline 
type,  but  the  advance  in  price  of  gasoline  has 
brought  about  the  consideration  of  kerosene  and 
alcohol  for  fuel.  A  great  deal  of  study  is  being 
given  at  the  present  time  to  the  use  of  different 
fuels  as  applied  to  these  internal  combustion 
engines.  It  would  appear  that  the  development 
of  these  engines  will  enable  us  to  make  use  of 
a  number  of  fuels  whicli  heretofore  have  not  been 
utilized. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  internal  combus- 
tion engine  depend  largely  upon  the  individual 
equipment  and  the  person  in  charge.  It  is  not 
possible  to  lay  down  any  specific  rules  as  to  the 
operation  of  these  engines,  as  there  are  hardly 
any  two  of  them  which  have  the  same  construc- 
tion. It  necessitates  becoming  familiar  with 
the  particular  make  in  each  case  and  learning 
their  own  peculiarities.  While  at  first  there  were 
many  of  these  gasoline  engines  that  were  trying 


on  the  nerves,  they  are  at  present  sufficiently 
perfected  so  that  they  can  be  made  to  operate 
satisfactorily  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  care. 

^lost  of  the  manufacturers  of  these  small  units 
guarantee  that  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed 
per  brake  horsepower  per  hour,  will  not  exceed 
1.2  pints  of  standard  seventy-six  degrees  test 
gasoline  when  working  at  full  load.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  majority  of  these  small  units  will 
not  work  at  anything  like  full  load,  so  that  in 
the  majority  of  cases  the  results  would  not  be 
so  favorable.  From  a  number  of  tests  made  on 
different  makes  of  engines,  it  would  appear  that 
two  pints  of  gasoline  per  brake  horsepower  per 
hour  would  come  nearer  the  average  conditions. 

In  these  internal  combustion  engines  we  have 
portable  and  the  stationary.  Where  possilile  the 
stationary  engine  is  more  desirable  than  the  port- 
able, as  it  can  be  mounted  on  permanent  founda- 
tion which  will  overcome  the  vibration  to  a 
large  extent.  There  are  cases,  however,  where 
it  is  very  advantageous  to  have  the  portable 
equipment  and  these  can  be  used  to  good  ad- 
vantage where  sufficient  care  is  used  in  setting 
them. 

It  is  the  common  practice  to  locate  the  sta- 
tionary equipment  in  a  position  Avhere  most  of 
the  various  machines  can  be  driven  from  a  line 
shaft,  the  power-room  to  be  so  constructed  that 
the  engine  will  not  be  greatly  affected  by  the 
variation  in  temperature  and  should  be  practical- 
ly frost-proof.  The  cooling  and  supplying  tanks 
should  be  located  as  best  suited  to  the  particular 
conditions,  but  the  equipment  should  be  installed 
so  as  to  conform  to  the  insurance  requirements, 
otherwise  the  insurance  inspectors  might  take  ex- 
ception to  the  installation  and  request  altera- 
tions which  might  be  expensive  or  might  necessi- 
tate the  changing  of  the  entire  outfit. 

The  transmission  of  the  power  to  the  various 
machines  is  usually  by  shaft  and  belting,  but  in 
a  few  eases  there  has  been  used  in  connection 
with  the  engine  a  dynamo,  in  Avhich  case  it 
makes  possible  the  use  of  motors  at  the  various 
points  of  distribution  where  power  is  desired. 

The  generator  is  mounted  in  the  power-room 
and  from  this  distributing  lines  are  led  to  the 
various  points  where  it  is  desired  to  use  power 
or  have  lights.  For  the  motor  in  some  cases  it 
is  found  advantageous  to  use  a  stationary  ma- 
chine for  some  particular  equipment.  In  other 
cases  it  is  convenient  to  have  a  portable  motor 
which  can  be  moved  from  one  point  to  another 
and  applied  to  whatever  machines  it  is  desired  to 
drive.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  electric  sys- 
tem is  the  flexibility,  and  in  addition  to  the 
power  you  have  the  advantage  of  the  lights. 

When  it  is  possible  to  obtain  electric  current 


352 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


from  an  outside  source,  such  as  from  a  light  and 
power  company  or  suburban  road,  the  motor 
power  is  very  desirable  in  that  it  makes  possible 
a  source  of  power  that  can  be  depended  upon  at  a 
moment's  notice.  This  also  enables  you  to  have 
the  use  of  the  electric  lights.  Motor  power  is  a 
rotary  motion  and  does  not  necessitate  the  heavy 
foundation  that  the  reciprocating  engine  does. 
While  the  cost  of  electric  power  may  be  some- 
what higher  than  that  obtained  from  the  inter- 
nal combustion  engine,  it  is  well  to  take  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  it  is  a  power  than  can 
be  depended  upon  and  will  eliminate  much  of 
the  trouble  experienced  with  the  other  system. 


watt.  The  charge  then  for  one  horsepower 
would  be  3  cents  per  horsepower  hour  or  it  would 
cost  thirty  cents  to  run  1-horsepower  motor  at 
full  load  for  ten  hours. 

AN  IOWA  BARN  FOR  BREEDING  CATTLE. 

The  barn  shown  in  Figs.  '632  to  637  was 
planned  and  erected  with  a  view  of  reducing  the 
labor  of  caring  for  Short-horn  cattle.  The  barn 
will  comfortably  house  70  cows,  a  large  per 
cent  of  them  having  calves  at  foot.  When  cattle 
are  in  the  barn  the  gates  are  opened  and  there 


IRON  TEACK  TOR  HAY  CARRIIil 


^M2  BOARDS  ^ OGEE  BATTENS 


FIG.    632.       IOWA  BARN   FOR   BREEDING   CATTLE    (ELEVATION). 


SHREDDED 


miT^ 


FODDER 


^ 


CP 


'2''I2  GIRDER 

HAYCAPACITr 
S„  90  TONS 


^. 


SHRZDDED 


^2  "10 
!>,F££D  BOX 


FODDER 


joms- 


HAY 


FIG.    633.       IOWA  BARN  FOR  BREEDING  CATTLE    (FRAMEWORK). 


The  charge  being  made  for  current  as  supplied 
for  this  purpose  varies  materially  according  to 
location.  There  are  instances  where  this  is  be- 
ing furnished  for  as  little  as  31/0  cents  per 
kilowatt  hour,  while  there  are  but  few  cases 
where  the  charge  exceeds  5  cents  per  kilowatt 
hour  furnished  for  farm  purposes.  On  the  basis 
of  4  cents  per  kilowatt  hour  the  cost  of  one  horse- 
power for  one  hour  would  be  as  746  is  to  1,000, 
or  one  horse-power  is  practically  %  of  one  kilo- 


is  no  danger  of  a  cow  being  cornered  and  hooked 
by  other  animals,  and  at  the  same  time  gates 
are  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  closed  and 
cattle  can  be  changed  and  sorted  very  readily. 
One  man  can  care  for  all  the  cattle  in  this  barn 
in  a  few  hours  every  day.  Tlie  manure  spreader 
can  be  drawn  into  the  barn,  thus  reducing  to 
a  minimum  the  work  of  cleaning.  All  of  the 
feed  and  roughness  are  very  convenient. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


353 


^^ 


m 


6 


FIG.     634.        IOWA    BARN-    FOR    BREEDING    CATTLE     (SIDE    VIEW). 


[     ha 

FEED 
/ 

'v 

< 

cusro  BOX 

SIAUS        1 

a                               \                                    ^ 

■ 

OBAVEL    FLOOR 

■ 

< 

u. 

-J 
< 

HAY 

1 

W^ttMr, 

[ 

"^ 

L 

\- 

/' 

,^ 

I 

FIG.     635.       IOWA    BARN     (FLOOR). 


2x]0     JOISTS 


FEED 
SLIDE 


HAY  WELL 


SECTION    OF  MANGER 


FIG.     636.       IOWA    BARN     ( MANGER). 


Except  during  the  very  severe  stormy  weather, 
south  sliding  doors  are  left  open  so  that  cattle 
may  go  out  and  in  at  pleasure.  The  barn  is  pro- 
vided with  six  commodious  closed  stalls  where 
in  winter  cows  with  very  young  calves  or  near 
calving  are  kept.  At  night  the  cows  and  calves 
are  separated,  except  in  case  of  cows  with  young 
calves  in  box  stalls.  The  calves  that  are  separated 
from  their  mothers  at  night  are  provided  with 
a  comfortable  calf  pen  in  the  east  side  of  the 
barn. 

The  hay  compartment  designated  in  the  plan 
as  well  will  hold  90  tons  of  hay.     The  box  stalls 


,^ 


BOX  STALL  MAM GIH5 


FIG.     637.       IOWA    BARN     (HAY    MOW    AND    STALLS). 

are  provided  with  hay  mangers  or  racks  which 
are  filled  from  second  floor.  Ample  storage  for 
roughness  like  shredded  fodder  is  provided  on 
the  second  floor  over  where  cattle  run,  and  it  can 


354  FARM  BUILDINGS. 

be  readily  fed  in  the  mangers  in  the  barn,  all  except  in  very  severe  weather.    The  calf  pen  is  in 

of  which  are  of  the  rack  plan  extending  to  the  the  most  protected  part  of  the  barn  and  away 

second  floor.  from  cold  draughts,  although  the  barn  is  very 

The  cattle  except  the  cows  in  box  stalls  run  comfortable  and  at  the  same  time  the  cattle  can 

loose  in  the  barn  and  may  go  out  and  in  at  will,  be  cared  for  at  a  minimum  cost  of  labor. 


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